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PRACTICAL 
STONEMASONRY 
SELF-TAUGHT 

ESPECIALLY  DESIGNED  FOR  HOME  STUDY 


Being  a series  of  practical  instructions  for  the  use  of  stone- 
masons, stone-cutters,  marble- workers  and  stone  contrac- 
tors ; showing  how  to  lay  out  and  work  all  kinds  of  arches, 
stone  steps,  stairs  and  hand-rails,  skew  bridges  and  arches, 
circle  on  circle  work,  niches,  classic  and  gothic  stonework, 
piers  and  other  stonework,  plain  and  ornamental. 


By  FRED  T.  HODGSON,  Architect 

Author  of  “Steel  Square,”  “Modern  Carpentry,”  “Architectural  Draw- 
ing,” “Modern  Estimator,”  etc.,  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED 


PUBLISHERS 

FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  & COMPANY 
CHICAGO 


Copyright  1907 

BY 

Frederick  J.  Drake  & Co. 
Chicago. 


^x-v-^vx. 


(,  f 3 
H t 6 f 


NOTE  TO  THE  READER. 


This  book  was  formerly  published  in  two 
parts,  one  part  being  on  Bricklaying  work, 

which  is  the  reason  for  the  folios  commencing 

c- 

at  Page  181.  This  part  has  been  revised  and 
enlarged  and  is  a complete  work  in  every 
respect  on  stonemasonry. 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 


-"5 


647222 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


MASONS’  WORK 

INTRODUCTION 

A mason,  properly  speaking,  means  a builder,  which 
is  evident  from  the  connection  between  the  French 
words  ma9on,  a mason;  maison,  a house,  and  maison- 
ner,  to  build  houses;  but  in  America  it  is  customary  to 
look  upon  a mason  and  a stone  mason  as  one  and  the 
same,  a builder  in  bricks  being  always  called  a brick- 
layer. In  Ireland  the  term  masonry  is  specially 
applied  to  stone-walling,  as  distinguished  from  the  cut 
stonework  used  in  dressings  and  other  work  of  a 
superior  description. 

In  this  country  masonry  is  the  art  of  building  in 
stone  in  a similar  manner  to  that  of  brick,  with  the 
exception  that  brickwork  is  carried  out  with  uniform 
sized  blocks,  thus  admitting  of  a number  of  definite 
systems  of  laying  the  bricks;  whereas  in  stone,  owing 
to  the  expense  in  working  the  material,  the  face  stones 
only  are  squared,  and  the  interior  or  hearting  is  filled 
up  with  smaller  stones  roughly  fitted  with  a hammer. 
The  stones  are  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  vary- 
ing dimensions,  thereby  making  it  a matter  of  great 
skill  to  obtain  a proper  bond  in  the  work;  and  owing 
to  the  irregular  shape  of  the  material  the  walls  have 
to  be  made  considerably  thicker  than  walls  of  the  same 
height  in  brick,  with  the  exception  where  the  walls 
are  built  of  coursed  stones  properly  squared,  in  which 


1 82 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


case  the  thickness  may  be  even  less  than  that  of  brick 
walls. 

The  great  dimensions  in  which  stone  may  be 
obtained,  lends  itself  to  a much  greater  degree  than 
bricks  for  buildings  of  architectural  pretensions,  ren- 
dering it  possible  to  have  cornices  and  corbelled  work 
of  great  projection,  which  is  impossible  in  brickwork. 

TECHNICAL  TERMS 

The  following  is  a list,  and  also  an  explanation,  of 
some  terms  used  in  stonework: 

Bond,  Lap,  and  Course. — These  terms  have  the  same 
meaning  as  given  under  brickwork. 

Through  Stones. — Stones  which  extend  through  the 
entire  thickness  of  walls  to  tie  or  bond  them.  These 
are  objectionable,  as  damp  is  more  likely  to  show*  on 
the  interior  of  walls  where  the  continuity  of  the  mate- 
rial is  uninterrupted. 

Headers.— The  name  applied  to  stones,  the  lengths 
of  which  are  2/i  to  % thickness  of  the  wall,  laid  trans- 
versely. 

Bonders. — These  may  be  either  “throughs”  or 
“headers.” 

Grout.— This  is  a thin  mortar,  which  is  poured  over 
the  stones  when  brought  up  to  a level  surface,  to  fill 
up  any  interstices  between  the  stones  in  the  hearting 
of  walls  or  other  positions  as  necessity  requires. 

Spalls  or  Shivers. — These  are  broken  chips  of  stone, 
worked  off  in  the  dressing. 

Weathering. — The  top  face  of  a stone  worked  to  a 
plane  surface  inclined  to  the  horizontal  for  the  pur- 
pose of  throwing  off  the  water  is  said  to  be  weathered, 
as  in  sills,  cornices,  etc. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS 


183 


Footings. — The  object  of  footings  is  the  same  as  in 
brick  walls.  Stone  footings  should  be  large,  rectan- 
gular, through  stone  blocks.  Square  stones  in  plan 
are  not  so  good  as  oblong.  All  stones  in  the  same 
course  must  be  of  the  same  height,  but  all  courses 
need  not  necessarily  be  of  the  same  depth.  The 
breadth  of  set-offs  need  not  exceed  3 or  4 in. 

If  the  expense  of  stone  is  an  objection,  footings 
may  be  made  of  bricks  or  beds  of  concrete  of  suffi- 
cient depth.  See  chapters  on  Foundation  and  on 
Brickwork. 

Bed  Surface. — The  bed  surface  must  be  worked  in  one 
plane  surface.  Masons,  to  form  thin  joints,  often  make 
the  beds  hollow.  This  is  bad,  as  it  is  liable  to  spall; 
all  the  pressure  will  be  thrown  on  the  outer  part,  which 
is  liable  to  spall  the  edge  of  the  stone. 

Galleting. — The  term  given  when  small  pebbles  are 
pressed  into  the  face  joints  of  rubble  walls  to  preserve 
the  mortar  and  to  give  a pleasing  effect. 

Dressings. — Stones  are  said  to  be  dressed  when  their 
faces  are  brought  to  a fair  surface;  but  cut  or  prepared 
stones  used  as  finishings  to  quoins,  window  and  door 
openings,  are  described  as  dressings. 

Quoins. — In  rubble  and  inferior  stone  walls,  quoins 
are  built  of  good  blocks  of  ashlar  stone  to  give 
strength  to  the  wall.  These  are  sometimes  worked  to 
give  a pleasing  effect,  and  where  hammer  dressed  and 
chamfered  are  said  to  be  rusticated.  They  are,  at 
times,  merely  built  with  a rough  or  quarry  face,  only 
having  the  four  face  edges  of  each  stone  lying  in  one 
plane. 

Window  and  Door  Jambs. — For  purposes  of  strength 
these  should  be  of  cut  stone,  attention  being  given 
that  each  course  is  securely  bonded.  For  that  reason 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


184 

it  would  not  be  advisable  to  build  them  of  rubble. 

Stoncheons.— The  stones  forming  the  inside  angle  of 
the  jamb  of  a door  or  window  opening.  These  are 
often  cast  in  concrete  to  effect  a saving  in  labor. 

Sills. — These  are  the  lower  horizontal  members  of 
openings;  those  in  stone  are  usually  of  one  length, 
being  pinned  in  cement  to  both  sides  of  the  opening. 
They  should  be  fixed  after  the  carcass  of  a building 
has  been  finished,  and  any  settlement  that  was  likely 
to  occur  through  a number  of  wet  mortar  joints  has 
taken  place.  They  may  be  plain  and  square,  as  for 
door  sills,  or  sunk,  weathered,  moulded  with  drip  and 
with  properly  formed  stools,  and  grooved  for  metal 
water  bar,  or  moulded,  grooved  and  weathered. 

Corbel. — A stone  projecting  from  a wall  to  support  a 
projecting  feature. 

Skew  Corbel. — Is  a projecting  stone  at  the  lowest 
part  of  the  triangular  portion  of  the  gable  end  of  a 
wall  supporting  the  starting  piece  of  coping,  and 
resisting  the  sliding  tendency  of  the  latter.  The  skew 
corbels  are  often  tied  into  the  wall  by  long  iron 
cramps. 

Kneeler  or  Skewput. — This  is  a long  stone,  tailing 
well  into  the  gable  wall,  and  resists  the  sliding  tend- 
ency of  the  coping. 

Saddle  or  Apex  Stone. — The  highest  stone  of  a gable 
end,  cut  to  form  the  termination  of  two  adjacent 
inclined  surfaces. 

Lacing  Course. — Owing  to  the  absence  of  bond  in 
some  walls,  courses  of  bricks,  three  deep,  are  inserted 
at  intervals,  to  give  strength  to  the  wall  and  bring  it 
to  a level  surface.  Sometimes  the  name  is  applied  to 
a horizontal  band  of  stone  placed  in  rubble  or  rough 
walls  to  form  a longitudinal  tie. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS 


i85 


String  Courses.—Horizontal  bands  of  stone  sometimes 
moulded  and  projecting,  often  carried  below  windows 
to  accentuate  the  horizontal  divisions  of  a building. 

Plinth. — A horizontal  projecting  course  or  courses 
built  at  the  base  of  a wall.  These  are  to  protect  the 
wall,  and  are  often  built  in  hard  hammer-dressed 
stones. 

Cornices. — The  moulded  course  of  masonry  crowning 
buildings,  generally  having  a large  projection  to 
throw  off  the  rain. 

Saddled  or  Water  Joint. — To  protect  the  joints  of 
cornices  and  other  exposed  horizontal  surfaces  of 
masonry,  the  sinking  is  sometimes  stopped  before  the 
joint  and  weathered  off.  Any  water  passing  down  the 
weathered  surface  is  guided  away  from  the  joint. 
The  expense  of  this  joint  often  prohibits  its  use. 

Blocking  Course. — A course  of  stones  erected  to  make 
a termination  to  the  cornice,  the  object  being  to  gain 
extra  weight  to  tail  down  the  cornice,  and  to  form  a 
parapet. 

Coping. — The  highest  and  covering  course  of  masonry, 
forming  a waterproof  top,  to  preserve  the  interior  of 
wall  from  wet,  which  in  frosty  weather  might  burst 
the  wall.  Fig.  52,  B.  shows  a coping  flat  on  the  top  sur- 
face, which  should  be  used  only  for  inclined  surfaces, 
as  on  a gable,  or  in  sheltered  positions.  Saddle-back 
is  the  name  applied  when  the  upper  surface  is  weath- 
ered both  ways;  and  segmental,  when  the  section  of 
copings  shows  the  upper  surface  to  be  a part  of  a circle. 

Rebated  Joints. — These  joints  are  used  for  stone 
roofs  and  copings  to  obtain  weather-tight  joints. 
There  are  two  kinds:  1,  when  both  stones  are  rebated; 
2,  when  the  upper  stone  only  is  rebated.  In  the  first 
case  the  stones  are  of  the  same  thickness  throughout, 


1 86 


STONEMASONS*  GUIDE 


their  upper  surface  being  level  when  the  joint  is  made. 
In  the  second  case  the  stones  are  thicker  at  the  bottom 
edges  than  at  the  top,  the  bottom  edge  having  a rebate 
taken  out  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  upper  edge  of 
the  stone  below  it,  over  which  it  fits.  The  part  that 
laps  over  should  not  be  less  than  ^ in.  thick.  The 
upper  surfaces  or  beds  of  the  stones  should  be  level. 

Throatings. — Grooves  on  the  under  surfaces  of  cop- 
ings, sills,  string  courses,  etc.,  acting  as  drips  for  any 
water  that  would  otherwise  trickle  down  and  disfigure 
the  walls. 

Templates. — Slabs  of  stone  placed  under  the  end  of  a 
beam  or  girder  to  distribute  the  weight  over  a greater 
area. 

Gable  Details. — The  tops  of  stone  walls  are  protected 
by  coping,  and  these,  where  placed  on  steep  gables, 
need  support  at  their  lower  ends  and  at  intervals;  this 
may  be  done  by  constructing  a shoulder  at  the  foot,  or 
by  the  use  of  skew  corbels.  The  intermediate  sup- 
ports are  obtained  by  kneelers,  which  consist  of  stones 
having  a part  worked  as  a coping,  the  remainder  tail- 
ing well  into  the  wall. 

Corbie  Step  Gables.— A common  method  of  finishing 
gables  is  by  constructing  a number  of  steps  formed  of 
some  hard  stone  squared,  the  top  surfaces  being 
slightly  weathered  and  known  as  corbie  or  crow-step 
gabling. 

Gablets. — Many  skew  corbels  are  constructed  with  a 
small  gablet,  which  gives  extra  weight  to  the  skew 
corbel,  thus  rendering  it  more  efficient  for  resisting 
the  outward  thrust  of  the  coping  stones.  The  apex 
stones  are  often  treated  in  a similar  manner. 

Corbel-table. — A system  of  corbeling  supporting  a 
parapet,  often  forming  an  architectural  feature. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS  187 

Finial. — The  aspiring  ornament  of  an  apex  stone, 
often  richly  foliated. 

Parapet. — The  fence  wall  in  front  of  the  gutter  at  the 
eaves  of  a roof.  The  castellated  parapet  is  formed  by 
a number  of  embrasures  similar  to  the  parapets  used 
in  ancient  military  buildings,  much  used  in  the  later 
Gothic  work  as  an  ornamental  feature. 

Diaper  Work. — Is  the  name  given  to  bands,  surfaces 
and  panels  in  the  stone  work  formed  by  square  stones 
and  similar  squares,  filled  in  with  brick  or  flint  work, 
giving  a checkered  appearance.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  any  ornament  arranged  in  squares  upon  the 
surface  of  ashlar  masonry. 

Tympanum. — The  masonry  filling  in  between  the 
relieving  arch  and  the  head  of  a door  or  window. 
Advantage  is  often  taken  of  this  to  form  a ground  for 
carved  ornament. 

Gargoyle. — Is  a stone  water-spout,  employed  in  build- 
ings of  Gothic  character  to  carry  off  the  rain  from  the 
gutters.  These  project  sufficiently  far  to  throw  the 
water  clear  of  the  building.  At  present  down  pipes 
are  employed,  but  the  gargoyle  is  often  retained  as  an 
overflow  in  lieu  of  a warning  pipe. 

Tailing  Irons. — These  are  formed  of  H,  L,  or  T irons 
for  holding  down  the  ends  of  corbels  in  oriel  windows. 

Lintels. — Wide  spans  requiring  to  be  bridged  by 
stone  lintels  (as  is  the  case  in  the  trabeated  styles  of 
architecture)  are  often  of  a greater  dimension  than  can 
be  conveniently  obtained  in  one  stone,  in  which  case 
the  lintel  is  built  up  in  one  of  two  ways: 

(1)  By  an  arched  construction.  The  sloping  joints 
in  this  method  are  considered  objectionable  by  some, 
altering  as  it  does  the  principle  of  the  construction 
from  the  beam  to  the  arch,  the  number  of  small  pieces 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


1 88 

detracting  from  the  general  effect.  Vertical  joints  are 
preferred  to  inclined.  The  arched  principle,  with 
vertical  jointed  voussoirs,  may  be  carried  out  by  form- 
ing the  joint  vertically  on  and  about  4 in.  below  the 
face  and  the  remainder  to  the  back,  or,  if  seen  on  both 
sides,  in  the  center  of  the  lintel.  The  stone  cut  thus 
form  voussoirs  of  an  inch. 

(2)  The  method  now  most  usually  adopted  is  to  build 
the  lintel  up  of  a number  of  pieces  with  vertical  joints 
and  in  two  thicknesses,  the  front  and  back  portion 
being  made  to  envelop  the  flanges  of  a steel  girder, 
which  bridges  the  whole  span  and  takes  its  bearing  on 
the  columns.  The  back  and  front  pieces  are  connected 
on  the  soffit,  and  the  upper  surface  by  small  copper 
cramps,  the  latter  being  bedded  in  cement  mixed  with 
dust  from  the  stones  to  be  united.  The  hole  soffit  is 
finally  rubbed  over  with  a piece  of  stone  similar  to  the 
lintels,  to  render  the  joint  as  nearly  as  possible  invis- 
ible. Care  must  be  taken  to  protect  the  iron  girder 
from  the  danger  of  oxidation  by  applying  one  of  the 
preservative  processes  employed  for  iron  and  steel. 

The  stone  entablatures  built  over  shop  fronts  are 
formed  in  this  way,  but  have  the  stone  on  one  side 
only  of  the  girder,  being  connected  to  the  same  with 
cramps. 

The  masonry  above  stone  lintels  should  be  disposed 
to  throw,  as  much  as  possible,  the  weight  of  the  super- 
imposed walling  on  to  the  supports,  and  not  unneces- 
sarily stress  the  lintel. 

Labors. — The  following  are  the  chief  labors  adopted 
in  preparing  stone  work: 

Half-Sawing. — The  surface  left  by  the  saw;  half 
the  cost  of  the  sawing  being  charged  to  each  part  of 
the  separated  stone. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS 


189 

Self-faced. — The  term  applied  to  the  quarry  face,  or 
the  surface  formed  when  the  stone  is  detached  from 
the  mass  in  the  quarry;  also  the  surfaces  formed  when 
a stone  is  split  in  two. 

Scabbling  or  Scappling. — That  is,  taking  off  the 
irregular  angles  of  stone;  is  usually  done  at  the  quarry, 
and  is  then  said  to  be  quarry  pitched,  hammer  faced 
or  hammer  blocked;  when  used  with  such  faces  the 
stone  is  called  rock  or  rustic  work. 

Hammer  Dressing. — Roughest  description  of  work 
after  scabbling. 

Chisel  Drafted  Margin. — To  insure  good  fitting  joints 
in  hammer  faced  stones,  a true  surface  about  an  inch 
wide  is  cut  with  a chisel,  forming  a margin  on  the  face 
of  stone. 

Plain  Work. — This  is  divided,  for  purposes  of  valua- 
tion, into  half  plain  and  plain  work.  The  former  term 
is  used  when  the  surface  of  the  stone  has  been  brought 
to  an  approximately  true  surface,  either  by  the  saw  or 
with  the  chisel.  Plain  work  is  the  term  adopted  for 
surfaces  that  have  been  taken  accurately  out  of  wind- 
ing with  the  chisel.  Half  plain  is  usually  placed  upon 
the  bed  and  side  joints  of  stones  in  ashlar  work  and 
plain  work  on  the  face. 

Rubbed  Work. — This  labor  consists  in  rubbing  the 
surfaces  of  stones  until  perfectly  regular,  and  as 
smooth  as  possible.  The  work  is  accomplished  by 
rubbing  a piece  of  stone  with  a second  piece.  During 
the  first  stages  of  the  process,  water  and  sand  are 
added,  gradually  reducing  the  quantity  of  sand  up  to 
the  finish.  Large  quantities  of  stones  are  rubbed  by 
means  of  large  revolving  iron  discs,  on  which  the 
stones  are  placed,  and  kept  from  revolving  with  the 
disc  by  means  of  stationary  timbers  fixed  a few  inches 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


190 

above  and  across  the  table.  Water  and  sand  are  added 
to  accelerate  the  process.  Only  plane  surfaces  can  be 
rubbed  in  this  way. 

Polishing. — Marbles,  after  the  rubbed  operation,  are 
brought  to  a still  smoother  surface  by  being  well 
rubbed  with  flannel  and  a paste  of  beeswax  and  tur- 
pentine or  putty.  The  polishing  of  granite  has  been 
described  elsewhere. 

Boasted  or  Droved  Work. — This  consists  in  making  a 
number  of  parallel  chisel  marks  across  the  surface  of 
the  stone  by  means  of  a chisel  termed  a boaster, 
which  has  an  edge  about  2^  in.  in  width.  In  this 
labor,  the  chisel  marks  are  not  kept  in  continuous 
rows  across  the  whole  width  of  the  stone. 

Tooled  Work. — This  labor  is  a superior  form  of  the 
above,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  chisel  marks  in 
continuous  lines  across  the  width  of  the  stone.  ^ The 
object  of  this  and  the  preceding  is  to  increase  the 
effect  of  large  plane  surfaces  by  adding  a number  of 
shadows  and  high  lights.  This  labor  is  sometimes 
known  as  scabbled  work. 

Axed  Work. — Axed  work  and  tooled  work  are  similar 
labors.  The  axe  is  employed  for  hard  stones,  such  as 
granite,  but  the  mallet  and  chisel  for  soft  stones, 
being  more  expeditious. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  hard  stones  after  being 
detached  from  their  beds  in  the  quarry  is  as  follows: 
The  stones  are  roughly  squared  with  the  spall  hammer; 
the  beds  are  then  prepared  by  sinking  a chisel  draught 
about  the  four  edges  of  the  bed  under  operation,  the 
opposite  draughts  being  out  of  winding,  and  the  four 
draughts  in  the  same  plane  surface;  the  portions  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  draught  are  then  taken  off  with  the 
pick.  After  the  pick  the  surface  is  wrought  with  the 


TECHNICAL  TERMS 


191 

axe,  the  latter  being  worked  vertically  downward  upon 
the  surface,  and  taken  from  one  side  of  the  stone  to 
the  other,  and  making  a number  of  parallel  incisions 
or  bats;  the  axe  is  worked  in  successive  rows  across 
the  stone,  the  incisions  made  being  kept  continuous 
across  the  surface.  In  axed  work  there  are  about  four 
incisions  to  the' inch.  This  labor  is  used  for  the  beds 
of  stones  for  thresholds  and  curbstones,  and  in  this  state 
the  pick  marks  are  easily  discernible.  Fine  axed  work 
is  a finer  description  of  axed  work,  and  is  accomplished 
with  a much  lighter  axe  having  a finer  edge.  In  fine 
axed  work  there  would  be  eight  incisions  to  the  inch. 

Furrowed  Work. — This  labor,  used  to  accentuate 
quoins,  consists  in  sinking  a draught  about  the  four 
sides  of  the  face  of  a stone,  leaving  the  central  portion 
projecting  about  of  an  inch,  in  which  a number  of 
vertical  grooves  about  ^4  in.  wide  are  sunk. 

Combed  or  Dragged  Work. — This  is  a labor  employed 
to  work  off  all  irregularities  on  the  surfaces  of  soft 
stones.  The  drag  or  comb  is  the  implement  used.  It 
consists  of  a piece  of  steel  with  a number  of  teeth  like 
those  of  a saw.  This  is  drawn  over  the  surface  of  the 
stone  in  all  directions,  making  it  approximately 
smooth. 

Vermiculated  Work. — This  labor  is  placed  chiefly  on 
quoin  stones  to  give  effect.  The  process  is  as  follows: 
A margin  of  about  % in.  is  marked  about  the  edge  of 
the  stone,  and  in  the  surface  enclosed  by  the  margin  a 
number  of  irregularly  shaped  sinkings  are  made. 
The  latter  have  a margin  of  a constant  width  of  about 
24  in. between  them.  The  sinkings  are  made  about  2^  in. 
in  depth.  The  sunk  surface  is  punched  with  a pointed 
tool  to  give  it  a rough  pockmarked  appearance. 

Pointed  Work. — The  bed  and  side  joint  of  stones  are 


192 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


often  worked  up  to  an  approximately  true  surface  by 
means  of  a pointed  tool  or  punch.  This  labor  is  often 
employed  to  give  a bold  appearance  to  quoin  and 
plinth  stones,  and  where  so  used  it  usually  has  a chisel- 
draughted  margin  about  the  perimeter. 

Moulded  Work.— Mouldings  of  various  profiles  arc 
worked  upon  stones  for  ornamental  effect.  Mouldings 
are  worked  by  hand  as  well  as  by  machine.  In  the 
former  case,  the  profile  of  the  moulding  is  marked  on 
the  two  ends  of  the  stone  to  be  treated  by  means  of  a 
point  drawn  about  the  edge  of  a zinc  mould,  cut  to  the 
shape  of  the  profile.  A draught  is  then  sunk  in  the 
two  ends  to  the  shape  of  the  required  profile.  The 
superfluous  stuff  is  then  cut  away  with  the  chisel,  the 
surface  between  the  two  draughts  being  tested  for 
accuracy  by  means  of  straight-edges.  The  machines  for 
moulded  work  somewhat  resemble  the  planing  machjnes 
for  metal  work.  The  stone  is  fixed  to  a moving  table. 
The  latter  has  imparted  to  it  a reciprocating  rectilinear 
motion,  pressing  against  a fixed  cutter  of  the  shape  of 
required  profile,  or  some  member  of  it.  The  cutter  is 
moved  near  to  the  stone  after  each  journey,  thus 
gradually  removing  the  superfluous  stuff  till  the  profile 
is  completed.  Moulded  work  is,  strictly  speaking,  the 
name  given  to  profiles  formed  with  a change  of  curva- 
ture, and  therefore  should  not  be  applied  to  cylin- 
drical sections,  such  as  columns. 

The  weathering  properties  of  stones  moulded  by 
hand  labor  are  considered  by  some  far  superior  to 
those  worked  by  machinery,  as  in  the  latter  method 
the  moulding  irons,  being  driven  continuously, 
become  heated  and  partially  calcine  the  surfaces  of 
the  stones,  thus  rendering  it  peculiarly  susceptible  to 
atmospheric  deterioration. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS 


193 


Moulded  Work  Circular. — This  term  is  given  to 
mouldings  stuck  upon  circular  or  curved  surfaces  in 
plan  or  elevation. 

Sunk  Work. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  labor  of 
making  any  surface  below  that  originally  formed,  such 
as  chamfers,  wide  grooves,  the  sloping  surfaces  of 
sills,  etc.  If  the  surface  is  rough,  it  is  known  as  half- 
sunk;  if  smooth,  sunk,  and  any  other  labor  applied 
must  be  added,  such  as  sunk,  rubbed,  etc. 

Circular  Work. — Labor  put  upon  the  surface  of  any 
convex  prismatic  body,  such  as  the  parallel  shaft  of 
a column  or  large  moulding,  is  termed  circular  work. 

Circular  Sunk  Work. — Labor  put  upon  the  surface  of 
any  concave  prismatic  body,  such  as  a large  hollow 
moulding,  or  the  soffit  of  an  arch,  is  termed  circular 
sunk  work. 

Circular  Circular  Work. — The  labor  placed  upon 
columns  with  entases,  spherical  or  domical  work. 

Circular  Circular  Sunk. — The  labor  worked  upon  the 
interior  concave  surfaces  of  domes,  etc. 

Internal  Miters. — The  name  given  to  the  intersections 
of  two  mouldings  making  an  angle  less  than  180 
degrees. 

External  Miters. — The  name  given  to  the  intersection 
of  two  mouldings  making  an  angle  greater  than  180 
degrees. 

Returned  Mitered  and  Stopped. — The  name  given  to  a 
moulding  returned  in  itself,  and  stopping  against  an 
intersecting  surface. 

Long  and  Short  Work. — This  work  is  often  used  for 
quoins  and  dressings  in  rubble  walls,  and  is  especially 
noticeable  in  old  Saxon  work.  It  consists  in  placing 
alternately  a flat  slab,  which  serves  as  a bonder,  and  a 
long  stone  approximately  small  and  square  in  section. 


194 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


This  arrangement  in  modern  work  is  sometimes 
known  as  block  and  start  work. 

Stone  Walling. — Is  divided  under  the  following 
headings:  I,  Rubble;  2,  Block  in  Course;  3,  Ashlar. 

Illustrations  of  these  various  kinds  of  walling  will  be 
shown  later  on. 

Rubble  walls  are  those  built  of  thinly  bedded  stone, 
generally  under  9 in.  in  depth,  of  irregular  shapes  as 
in  random  rubble  or  squared  as  in  coursed  rubble. 

Block  in  course  is  composed  of  squared  stones 
usually  larger  than  coursed  rubble,  and  under  12  in. 
in  depth. 

Ashlar  is  the  name  given  to  stones,  from  12  to  18 
in.  deep,  dressed  with  ascabbling  hammer,  or  sawed  to 
blocks  of  given  dimensions  and  carefully  worked  to 
obtain  fine  joints. 

The  length  of  a soft  stone  for  resisting  pressure 
should  not  exceed  three  times  its  depth;  the  breadth 
from  one-and-a-half  to  twice  its  depth;  the  length  in 
harder  stones  four  to  five  times  its  depth,  and  breadth 
three  times  its  depth. 

Random  Rubble. — The  name  given  to  walling  built  of 
stones  that  are  not  squared,  but  roughly  fitted  with  a 
waller’s  hammer. 

Random  Rubble  Set  Dry. — In  the  stone  districts 
boundary  walls  are  built  of  rubble  set  without  mortar. 
The  top  is  built  of  heavy  stones,  which  are  usually 
bedded  in  earth,  to  prevent  slight  movement. 

Uncoursed  Random  Rubble  Set  in  Mortar. — In  these 
the  stones  are  used  as  they  come  from  the  quarry,  care 
being  taken  to  obtain  them  as  uniform  as  possible,  and 
roughly  fitting  with  the  waller’s  hammer;  one  bond 
stone  is  used  in  every  super  yard  on  face;  any  open- 
ings between  stones  to  be  pinned  in  with  spalls.  If 


TECHNICAL  TERMS 


*9$ 


good  mortar  is  used,  walls  built  of  random  rubble 
should  be  made  one-third  thicker  than  the  thickness 
necessary  for  brick  walls. 

Random  Rubble  Built  in  Courses. — This  consists  of 
stones  forming  horizontal  beds  at  intervals  of  12  to  18 
in.,  every  stone  being  bedded  in  mortar.  The  object 
of  coursing  is  to  insure  that  there  shall  be  no  con- 
tinuous vertical  joints.  To  save  expense  in  bedding 
each  stone  in  mortar,  masons  bed  only  the  stones  on 
faces  of  wall,  and  at  these  levels  pour  a pail  of  thin 
mortar,  called  grout,  to  fill  up  any  cross  joints  between 
stones,  taking  care  that  the  hearting  stones  are  prop- 
erly interlocked. 

TJncoursed  Squared  or  Snecked  Rubble. — Stones  roughly 
squared  and  hammer  or  axe  faced,  the  vertical  depth 
of  the  stones  usually  being  less  than  9 in;  to  prevent 
continuous  long  horizontal  joints,  small  stones,  termed 
snecks,  are  placed  at  intervals  adjacent  to  a large 
stone,  the  beds  of  both  being  level  and  thereby  com- 
mencing a horizontal  joint  at  another  level. 

Squared  Rubble  Built  in  Courses. — Squared  rubble  is 
brought  up  to  level  beds  with  dressed  quoins.  The 
coursing  is  to  prevent  continuous  vertical  joints.  It  is 
sometimes  known  as  irregular  coursed  rubble,  as  the 
courses  need  not  all  be  of  a uniform  depth. 

Regular  Coursed  Rubble. — In  this  kind  of  work  all 
stones  in  one  course  are  squared  to  the  same  height, 
usually  varying  from  4 in.  to  9 in.,  and  are  generally 
obtained  from  thin  but  regular  beds  of  stone. 

Block  in  Course  is  the  name  applied  to  stone  walling, 
chiefly  used  by  engineers  in  embankment  walls,  harbor 
walls,  etc.,  where  strength  and  durability  are  required. 
The  stones  are  all  squared  and  brought  to  good  fair 
joints,  the  faces  usually  being  hammer-dressed.  Block 


196 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


in  course  closely  resembles  coursed  rubble,  or  ashlar, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  work  put  upon  it. 

Ashlar. — Ashlar  is  the  name  applied  to  stones  that 
are  carefully  worked,  and  are  usually  over  12  in.  in 
depth. 

As  the  expense  would  be  too  costly  to  have  walls 
built  entirely  of  ashlar,  they  are  constructed  to  have 
ashlar  facing  and  rubble  backing,  or  ashlar  facing  and 
brick  backing,  but,  as  the  backing  would  have  a 
greater  number  of  joints  than  the  ashlar,  the  backing 
should  be  built  in  cement  mortar,  and  brought  to  a 
level  at  every  bed  joint  of  the  ashlar,  to  insure  equality 
of  settlement. 

The  ashlar  facing  may  be  plain,  rebated,  or  cham- 
fered, and  looks  best  when  laid  similar  to  Flemish 
bond  in  brickwork. 

JOINTS 

In  arranging  the  joints  of  masonry  the  following 
general  principles  should  be  observed: 

1.  All  the  bed  joints  must  be  arranged  at  right 
angles  to  the  pressure  coming  upon  them. 

2.  Joints  should  be  arranged  to  prevent  any  mem- 
bers, such  as  sills,  being  under  a cross-stress. 

3.  The  joint  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  leave  no 
acute  angles  on  either  of  the  pieces  joined. 

The  first  condition  applies  to  all  kinds  of  masonry. 
It  is  necessary  to  prevent  any  sliding  tendency  taking 
place  between  the  stones. 

The  second  condition  applies  chiefly  to  sills  in  win- 
dow openings.  These,  if  in  one  piece,  and  built  into 
the  piers  at  each  side  of  the  opening,  are  often  sub- 
jected to  a cross-stress,  owing  to  the  settlement  being 
greater  under  the  piers  than  beneath  the  window  opem 


JOINTS 


197 


ings.  This  danger  occurs  more  frequently  in  openings 
in  the  lowest  story,  and  the  effect  of  it  is  to  break  the 
sill.  In  brickwork,  this  defect  is  remedied  by  fixing 
the  sill  after  the  whole  of  the  brickwork  has  been 
erected  and  the  settlement  taken  place;  but  in  stone- 
work, and  under  conditions  where  the  sill  must  be  fixed 
as  the  building  proceeds,  the  breaking  of  the  sill  may 
be  prevented  by  having  a vertical  joint  in  the  line  of 
the  face  of  the  reveal. 

If  there  are  any  heavy  mullions  down  which  pressure 
may  be  transmitted,  the  same  precaution  must  be 
taken  with  the  sill;  but  if  light  mullions  occur,  the 
sill  maybe  taken  continuously  through.  In  such  cases 
no  joint  in  the  sill  should  occur  under  the  mullions. 

The  third  condition  applies  chiefly  to  the  joints  in 
tracery  work,  and  any  exposed  joints  in  any  other 
work.  Stone  being  a granular  material,  anything 
approaching  an  acute  angle  is  liable  to  weather  badly; 
therefore  in  any  tracery  work  having  several  bars 
intersecting,  a stone  must  be  arranged,  to  contain  the 
intersections  and  a short  length  of  each  bar,  and  the 
joints  should  be  (< a ) at  right  angles  to  the  directions  of 
the  abutting  bars  if  straight,  or  ( b ) in  the  directions  of 
a normal  to  any  adjacent  curved  ban  This  not  only 
prevents  any  acute  angles  occurring,  as  would  be  the 
case  if  the  joints  were  made  along  the  line  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  moulding,  but  also  insures  a better  finish, 
as  the  intersection  line  can  be  carved  more  neatly  with 
the  chisel,  and  is  more  lasting  than  would  be  the  case 
if  a mortar  joint  occurred  along  the  above  line.  In  no 
case,  either  in  tracery,  string  courses,  or  other  mould- 
ings, should  a joint  occur  at  any  miter  line. 

Joints. — These  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

I.  To  resist  compression,  such  as  the  square  joint, 


1 98 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


the  surface  of  which  is  arranged  normal  to  the  pressure. 

2.  To  resist  tension,  cramps,  lead  plugs  and  bolts. 

3.  To  resist  sliding  or  displacement,  joggle,  joints, 
tabling  dowels  and  pebbles. 

Joints  to  Resist  Compression. — Joints  in  stone  under  a 
compressional  stress  have  plane  abutting  surfaces 
normal  to  the  stress 

Joints  to  Resist  Tension. — The  texture  of  stone  Is 
unsuited  to  form  tensional  connections.  Where  there 
is  any  tensional  stress  the  joints  are  best  held  together 
by  metal  connections. 

Cramps. — Metal  cramps  are  used  to  bind  work 
together,  and  are  particularly  adapted  for  positions  in 
which  there  is  a tendency  for  the  stones  to  come  apart, 
such  as  in  copings  covering  a gable,  or  in  face  stones 
of  no  great  depth,  or  cornices  and  projecting  string 
courses  to  tie  them  to  the  body  of  the  wall.  The 
cramps  are  made  from  thin  pieces  of  metal  of  varying 
lengths  and  sectional  area  according  to  the  work, 
turned  down  about  1%  in.  at  each  end.  The  ends  are 
made  rough  and  inserted  into  dovetailed-shaped  mor- 
tises, and  the  body  in  a chase  made  to  receive  them  in 
the  stones  to  be  connected.  The  cramps  are  usually 
prepared  from  either  wrought  iron,  copper,  or  bronze. 
If  wrought  iron  is  used,  it  is  usually  subjected  to  some 
preservative  process,  such  as  tarring  and  sanding  or 
galvanizing,  to  prevent  oxidation.  Iron  is  useful  on 
account  of  its  great  tensile  strength.  Copper  is  valued 
for  its  non-corrosive  properties  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, and  its  tensile  strength,  which  is  not  much  less 
than  wrought  iron;  it  is,  however,  comparatively  soft. 
Bronze  possesses  all  the  properties  of  copper  necessary 
for  cramps,  and  in  addition  is  much  harder,  and  there- 
fore better. 


JOINTS 


199 


The  best  bedding  materials  are  Portland  cement, 
sulphur  and  sand,  asphalt  and  lead.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  completely  envelop  the  cramp  in  the  bedding 
materials.  Stones  are  also  connected  by  slate  cramps 
set  in  cement. 

Lead  Plugs. — Stones  may  be  connected  together  by 
means  of  lead  in  the  following  manner:  Dovetailed- 

shaped  mortices  are  made  to  correspond  in  the  side 
joints  of  two  adjacent  stones,  into  which,  when  placed 
in  position,  molten  lead  is  poured,  and  when  cool  is 
caulked,  thus  completely  filling  the  mortises  and  con- 
necting the  pieces. 

Bolts. — Stone  pinnacles,  finials,  and  similar  members, 
where  built  of  several  stones,  are  usually  connected 
together  with  iron  bolts  passing  through  all  of  them 
and  binding  down  to  some  more  stable  portion  of  the 
work.  Cornices  with  a great  projection  are  secured  by 
long  iron  bolts,  termed  anchor  bolts,  carried  well  down 
into  the  body  of  the  work,  and  at  their  lower  ends 
passing  through  large  iron  plates  termed  anchor  plates. 

Rag  Bolts. — Are  employed  to  secure  ironwork  to 
stone.  The  ends  of  the  bolts  are  often  fixed  by  having 
the  end  that  is  let  into  the  stone  jagged,  and  run  with 
lead,  or  sulphur  and  sand,  the  mortise  being  dovetailed- 
shaped  to  secure  it  from  any  upward  pressure. 

Where  there  is  any  probability  of  a great  upward 
stress  a hole  is  drilled  right  through  the  stone  and  a 
bolt  supplied  with  a washer  passed  through  in  the 
ordinary  manner. 

Joints  to  Resist  Sliding. — The  following  are  those 
most  used: 

Joggles. — A joggle  is  a form  of  joint  in  which  a por- 
tion of  the  side  joint  of  one  stone  is  cut  to  form  a 
projection,  and  a corresponding  sinking  is  made  in 


200 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


the  side  of  the  adjacent  stone  for  the  reception  of  the 
projection.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  landings  to  prevent 
any  movement  between  the  stones  joined  and  so  retain 
a level  surface  between  them,  and  also  to  assist  in 
distributing  any  weight  over  every  stone  in  the 
landing. 

Tabling  Joints. — This  is  a form  of  joint  that  has  been 
used  to  prevent  lateral  motion  in  the  stones  of  a wall 
subjected  to  lateral  pressure,  such  as  in  a sea-wall.  It 
consists  of  a joggle  joint  in  the  bed  joints,  the  projec- 
tion in  this  case  being  about  in.  in  depth  and  a 
third  of  the  breadth  of  the  stone  in  width.  This  kind 
of  joint  is  rarely  used  now,  owing  to  the  great  expense 
in  forming  it,  it  being  superseded  for  sea-walls  by 
huge  blocks  of  concrete  cast  on  or  near  the  spot,  of  a 
weight  sufficient  to  resist  any  pressure  likely  to  be 
brought  to  bear  on  them,  and  usually  under  other  con- 
ditions by  long  slate  joggles  placed  in  a space  to 
receive  them  in  the  bed  joint  at  the  junction  of  side 
joints  of  two  stones  and  the  top  bed  joint  of  another. 

Cement  Joggles. — These  are  generally  used  in  the  side 
joints  of  the  top  courses  of  masonry  to  prevent  lateral 
movement  in  them,  and  consist  of  a V-shaped  sinking 
in  the  side  joint  of  each  adjacent  stone  in  the  same 
course. 

Dowels. — Doweling  is  another  method  of  obtaining 
the  same  result  as  joggling  or  tabling.  The  dowels 
consist  usually  of  pieces  of  hard  stone  or  slate  about  I 
in.  square  in  section,  and  varying  from  about  2 in.  to  5 
in.  in  length,  slightly  tapering  from  the  center  towards 
the  two  ends,  being  sunk  and  set  in  cement  in  cor- 
responding mortises  in  the  adjacent  stones.  They 
are  used  in  both  the  side  and  bed  joints.  They  are 
generally  employed  in  the  top  courses  of  masonry 


TOOLS  USED  IN  STONEWORK  201 


where  the  weight  on  or  of  the  individual  stones  is  not 
great.  The  united  mass  thus  formed  from  the  col* 
iected  stones  renders  any  movement  impossible  under 
normal  conditions. 

Pebbles. — Small  pebbles,  owing  to  the  ease  with 
which  they  may  be  fitted,  were  formerly  employed  in 
the  jo;nts  of  stones  to  prevent  sliding.  They  are  now 
in  most  work  displaced  by  slate  dowels  or  joggles. 
The  pebbles  are  still  sometimes  used  for  small  work. 


TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES  USED  IN  CUTTING  AND 
BUILDING  STONEWORK 

The  tools  used  by  the  mason  are  many  and  varied, 
as  different  tools  are  required  for  different  styles  of 
work,  and  even  where  the  same  style  of  work  is  being 
wrought,  but  being  made  of  softer  or  harder  materials, 
other  sets  of  tools  will  be  required.  Marble  and  the 
softer  stones  are  worked  with  tools  that  are  very  much 
different  from  those  used  in  working  granite  or  the 
harder  stones. 

The  following  tools  and  appliances  are  those  mostly 
used  at  the  present  time  by  operative  masons: 

Fig.  I.  The  square  is  of  various  sizes,  and  generally 
made  of  steel  plate  about  cne-eighth  of  an  inch  thick; 
the  edges  are  parallel  and  at  right  angles  to  each 
other. 

It  is  important  that  the  square  should  be  true,  as  the 
accuracy  of  the  work  depends  entirely  upon  it,  and  for 
this  reason  it  should  be  frequently  tested  for  correct- 
ness. 

Fig.  2.  The  set  square  is  of  several  sizes,  and  made 
of  iron,  brass,  or  zinc  plate;  it  contains  a right  angle 


202 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


35 


TOOLS  USED  IN  STONEWORK 


203 


and  two  angles  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  is  used  chiefly 
for  miters,  and  setting  out  on  bed  of  work. 

Fig.  3.  The  bevel,  or  shift  stock,  made  of  iron  or 
brass,  and  used  for  sinkings,  bevels,  etc. 

Fig.  4.  A small  tee  square  of  unequal  sides,  and 
with  right  angles,  used  for  sinkings,  etc. 

Fig.  5.  Mallet  of  beech,  or  other  hard  wood,  of 
various  sizes,  for  striking  the  cutting  tools. 

Fig.  6.  Hand  hammer  of  steel,  about  five  pounds  in 
weight,  used  principally  with  punch  for  removing 
waste,  and  in  very  hard-grit  stones.  It  is  used  also 
with  hammer-headed  chisels. 

Fig.  7.  The  punch;  the  cutting  edge  of  this  tool  is 
about  a quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  and  chisel-pointed. 
It  is  used  with  the  hammer  for  removing  all  super- 
fluous  waste. 

Fig.  8.  The  point,  with  edge  similar  to  punch,  is 
used  with  mallet,  generally  for  hard-grit  or  lime 
stones,  and  for  reducing  the  irregularities  left  from 
punch,  leaving  the  stone  in  narrow  ridges  and  furrows 
close  down  to  face. 

Fig.  9.  Chisels,  of  various  widths,  from  % in.  to  I y2 
in.  wide,  used  for  mouldings,  fillets,  sinkings,  etc. 

Figs.  10  and  11.  Boasters,  from  1 in.  to  3 in.  wide, 
used  for  dressing  stones  down  to  smooth  faces,  and 
cleaning  or  finishing  mouldings,  etc- 

Fig.  12.  Broad-tool,  about  4 in.  wide,  used  for 
tooling. 

Fig.  13.  Claw-tool.  These  are  of  various  sizes,  the 
teeth  being  cut  coarse  or  fine  to  suit  the  texture  of 
the  stone.  For  hard  lime  stones  the  teeth  at  point  are 
about  in.  wide,  and  for  softer  stones  from  % to  3/q  in. 
wide.  The  claw  tool  is  used  after  the  punch  or  point, 
dressing  down  the  ridges  still  closer  to  finished  face. 


204 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Figs.  14  and  15.  Small  chisels,  of  various  sizes,  for 
carving,  letter-cutting,  etc. 

Fig.  16.  Small  chisels,  called  “splitters,”  of  various 
sizes;  the  heads  are  concave,  or  cup-headed,  as  in 
sketch,  Fig.  38.  When  used  with  an  iron  hammer, 
Fig.  21,  they  cut  very  smooth  and  sweet. 

They  are  used  mostly  for  marble  work,  carving, 
lettering,  etc. 

Fig.  1 7.  Pitching  tool;  this  has  a beveled  instead  of 
a cutting  edge,  and  is  used  with  the  hammer,  for 
pitching  or  knocking  off  the  irregularities  or  waste 
lumps  on  stone. 

Fig.  18.  Jumper,  chisel-pointed  and  slightly  round- 
nosed; it  is  wider  at  cutting  edge  than  the  diameter  of 
tool,  so  that  it  clears  itself  in  cutting  circular  holes, 
for  which  it  is  used,  chiefly  in  granite. 

Fig.  19.  Chisel  for  soft  stone  (this  is  a general  term, 
and  comprises  varieties  like  marble  or  alabaster). 
The  chisels  have  wood  handles,  and  are  similar  to  car- 
penters’ “firmer  chisels. ” 

Fig.  20.  Drags  for  soft  stone,  of  best  steel  saw- 
plate,  with  coarse,  middling,  and  fine  teeth,  called 
coarse,  seconds,  and  fine  drags.  These  are  used  by 
traversing  the  face  of  the  stone  in  all  directions  and 
removing  the  saw  and  chisel  marks,  and  finishing  to 
any  degree  of  smoothness  required. 

Fig.  21.  Iron  hammer,  about  three  or  four  pounds 
weight,  used  with  cup  headed  tools,  for  carving,  letter- 
ing, etc. 

Fig.  22.  Dummy,  of  lead  or  zinc,  about  three  or  four 
pounds  in  weight,  used  for  striking  the  soft  Stone 

Note — Numbers  8 and  15  are  mallet  headed  tools,  and 
must  never  be  struck  with  the  hammer,  the  heads  being  made 
to  receive  the  blow  of  the  mallet  only. 


TOOLS  USED  IN  STONEWORK 


205 

tools;  it  is  handier  than  the  mallet,  and  at  times  more 
convenient  to  use. 

Fig.  23.  Cross-cut  saw,  of  best  steel  plate,  and  of 
various  sizes,  for  cutting  soft  stone  blocks,  scantling, 
etc.;  the  teeth  are  coarse,  and  broadly  set  for  clear- 
ance. Two  men  are  required  in  using  it. 

Fig.  24.  Compasses,  for  setting-out  work,  etc. 

Fig.  25.  Shows  sketch  of  a saw  frame,  for  hand- 
sawing, which  in  practice  requires  some  little  skill  in 
framing  up  to  the  various  sizes. 

The  frame  generally,  for  good  working,  should  be 
about  two  feet  longer  inside  than  the  length  of  stone 
to  be  sawed,  so  as  to  allow  for  draft. 

The  heads  or  ends  of  frame  are  made  of  4 x 3 in. 
pine,  tapered  from  near  the  top  to  3 y2  x 2 in.  at  the 
bottom,  with  a groove  or  slot  for  the  saw  4 in.  deep 
by  I % in.  wide,  the  angles  being  rounded  off  or 
smoothed  to  make  it  easy  for  the  hands. 

The  stretcher  is  a piece  of  pole  about  3 in.  in  diam- 
eter, with  iron  ferrule  at  each  end,  varying  in  length. 
Packing  pieces  are  used  against  the  head  at  each  end 
of  stretcher  as  shown. 

The  couplings  are  in  wrought  iron,  % in.  in  diam- 
eter, of  various  lengths  and  shapes,  as  in  sketch. 
These  are  tightened  up  with  a union  screw  in  the  cen- 
ter, which  keeps  the  saw  taut,  so  that  no  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  getting  the  saw  frame  to  the  required 
length. 

The  saw  plate  is  of  iron,  about  4 in.  wide  by  XV  in. 
thick,  with  two  holes  punched  through  it,  ^ in.  in 
diameter,  at  each  end,  for  iron  pins,  which  are  inserted 
to  keep  the  saw  in  position.  The  pins  are  4 in.  long, 
and  have  a small  slot  the  thickness  of  the  saw  plate 
and  }£  in.  deep,  fixed  with  the  groove  towards  the  end 


IT rvivrv  jcrcnr 


20  6 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


F/C  28 


END  VIEW  of  SAW 

FI  C 25 


TOOLS  USED  IN  STONEWORK 


207 


of  the  saw;  this  enables  the  sawyer  to  keep  the  saw 
straight  down  the  cut,  by  tapping  either  end  of  the 
pin,  should  the  saw  deviate  from  the  vertical  line. 
This  slot  in  the  pins  is  important,  as  the  saw  cannot 
be  kept  true  without  this  arrangement.  The  pole,  for 
carrying  the  saw  frame,  is  from  16  to  20  ft.  long  and  3 
or  4 in.  diameter  at  bottom,  and  tapering  towards  the 
top;  a crosspiece  and  chain  is  secured  nearly  at  the 
top  of  pole  to  carry  the  pulley.  The  pole  is  kept  in 
position  by  planting  it  in  the  ground,  and  a rough  piece 
or  two  of  stone  is  laid  against  it.  The  cords  for  carry- 
ing the  saw  frame  are  about  in.  in  diameter;  small 
chains  are  sometimes  used,  but  cords  work  more  easily. 

The  cord  is  fastened  round  the  stretcher  and  over 
the  pulleys  on  top  of  the  pole  (which  must  be  vertical 
to  the  cut),  and  then  round  hook  of  bottom  pulley. 
The  weight  must  be  so  adjusted  as  to  allow  the  saw- 
frame  to  be  the  heavier  by  about  eight  or  ten  pounds; 
this,  however,  will  depend  greatly  on  the  nature  of  the 
stone.  The  position  of  weight  can  be  raised  or  low- 
ered to  suit  the  cut  by  shifting  the  cord  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pole. 

The  drip  board  is  of  pine,  as  in  sketch,  and  about  2 
ft.  long,  with  sloping  side  against  the  cut,  and  on  this 
is  placed  the  water  tub;  a small  spigot  is  inserted  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  is  adjusted  to  allow  the 
water  to  trickle  down  the  board,  carrying  with  it  the 
sand,  which  is  also  on  the  board,  into  the  cut.  To 
regulate  the  supply  of  water  and  sand,  the  sawyer  uses 
a small  rake  with  a long  handle. 

The  line  of  cut  for  saw  should  be  set  out  with  a 
plumb  rule  or  bob  at  each  end  of  the  block,  and  a 
V-shaped  chase  cut  in  to  guide  the  sawyer  in  keeping 
to  a true  line. 


208 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


The  best  sand  for  cutting  is  hard  grit,  washed 
through  several  sieves,  all  the  coarse  and  fine  being 
rejected,  and  the  medium  size  only  used.  A bushel  of 
this  sand  will  cut  about  12  ft.  super  of  stone. 

The  saw  is  drawn  backwards  and  forwards  and  the 
stone  cut  by  the  attrition  of  the  saw  plate  with  the 
sand  and  water. 

A good  sawyer  can  cut  by  hand  from  15  to  20  ft. 
super  of  sandstone  in  one  day  of  ten  hours. 

On  large  jobs  steam  stone  saw  frames  are  used,  in 
which,  if  necessary,  from  one  to  twenty  cuts  may  be 
put  in  one  block  at  the  same  time. 

Fig.  27.  Shows  a method  of  coping  or  splitting  a 
block  of  stone  to  a required  size. 

Begin  by  cutting  a V chase  on  top  and  two  sides  of 
the  block,  as  at  g,  f e\  directly  under  this  place  a 
wood  skid,  and  on  the  top  of  the  skid  a long  iron  bar, 
which  should  bone  with  the  lin e gf]  or  a punch  driven 
in  on  each  side,  as  at  e,  will  do  nearly  as  well.  At 
extreme  end  place  a short  skid,  as  at  h , and  packed  up 
to  within  an  inch  of  the  under  side  of  the  block.  This 
is  done  to  prevent  the  coped  piece  from  breaking 
under  by  its  own  weight,  as  the  fracture  would  not 
take  the  line  of  direction  proposed,  but  would  prob- 
ably break  away  from  j to  k and  spoil  the  block. 

Sink  wedge  holes  with  the  punch  (at  distances  apart 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  stone)  to  as  fine  a point 
as  possible  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  as  in  sketch,  at 
b , so  that  the  wedge  will  bite  or  hold  when  struck  with 
the  hammer.  The  apex  of  the  wedge,  which  is  of 
iron,  is  blunt  pointed  and  about  ^ in.  wide,  so  that  it 
does  not  touch  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  or  when  struck 
it  would  jump  out.  The  holes  being  cut,  the  wedges 
are  inserted  in  each  one;  care  must,  however,  be  taken 


TOOLS  USED  IN  STONEWORK 


209 


to  keep  them  upright,  so  that  the  cleavage  takes  the 
line  of  direction  required.  The  wedges  are  now 
gently  tapped  with  a heavy  hammer,  till  all  have  got 
a hold;  then  harder  blows  are  given  in  quick  succes- 
sion, and  the  fracture  takes  place. 

a shows  sketch  of  wedge,  made  of  iron,  and  from  4 
to  5 in.  long  and  iy2  in.  wide.  ^ 

In  coping  or  splitting  granite,  wedge  holes  are  not 
cut  as  in  stone,  but  circular  holes  are  “jumped,”  1 in.' 
or  in.  in  diameter  and  about  5 in.  deep,  at  dis- 
tances apart  varying  with  the  obstinacy  of  the  mate- 
rial, and  plugs  and  feathers  are  inserted  and  driven  in 
as  for  stone.  The  plug  is  of  soft  steel,  and  made 
tapering  as  at  c. 

The  feathers  are  thin  pieces  of  iron,  concave  in  sec- 
tion, as  shown  at  c 1.  These  are  first  put  in  the  holes, 
the  plugs  are  then  driven  in  until  they  become  tight, 
and  a few  sharp  blows  are  all  that  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  process  of  splitting,  c I is  a plan  of  c to  a 
larger  size. 

Fig.  28  shows  a pair  of  iron  lewises  used  in  lifting 
worked  stones  for  fixing.  The  lewis  consists  of  a 
dovetail  of  three  pieces,  the  two  outer  pieces  being 
first  inserted  in  the  hple,  and  then  the  center  piece, 
which  acts  as  a key,  and  tightens  up  the  dovetail;  the 
shackle  is  next  put  on,  and  the  bolt  is  passed  through 
the  whole. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  cut  the  hole  to  a dovetailed 
shape,  and  of  the  size  of  the  lewis. 

A is  the  front  view  and  B is  the  side  view,  of  the 
lewises. 

Fig.  29.  Shows  an  iron  conical-shaped  lewis  plug, 
which  is  placed  in  a slightly  larger  dovetailed  hole,  a 
small  curved  iron  plug  being  inserted  by  its  side. 


210  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 

which  keys  it  up.  This  is  used  chiefly  for  worked 
granite. 

Fig.  30.  A pair  of  chain  lewises,  consisting  of  two 
curved  iron  plugs  with  rings  for  chain;  these  are 
inserted  in  a dovetailed  hole,  and  when  tightened  up 
act  similarly  to  the  ordinary  lewises. 

Fig.  31.  A pair  of  iron  dogs,  or  nippers,  with  steel- 
jointed  claws,  used  for  lifting  rough  blocks,  and  also  for 
fixing. 

Fig.  32.  Axe,  about  12  or  14  lbs.  in  weight,  chisel- 
pointed,  used  on  granite  for  removing  the  inequalities 
left  by  the  pick  and  dressing  it  similarly  to  tooled 
work  in  stone,  showing  the  marks  or  indents  in  paral- 
lel lines. 

Fig.  33.  Pick,  about  16  lbs.  weight,  used  chiefly  on 
granite,  for  dressing  the  inequalities  of  the  rough  or 
rock  face  down  to  within  1 in.  of  the  finished  face; 
and  also  used  for  scabbling  blocks  of  stone  roughly  to 
the  required  shape. 

Fig.  34.  Spalling  hammer,  about  12  to  14  lbs. 
weight.  This  has  a square  edge  of  about  1 T/2  in.,  and 
is  a very  effectual  tool  for  knocking  off  rough  lumps. 

Eig.  35.  Patent  axe;  the  body  of  this  is  of  iron,  with 
a slot  at  each  end,  into  which  a number  of  parallel 
thin  plates  of  steel,  chisel-sharpened  and  of  equal 
length,  are  inserted  and  tightly  bolted  together.  This 
is  used  for  granite,  and  produces  the  finest  description 
of  face,  next  to  polishing. 

Fig.  36.  A pair  of  trammel  heads,  or  beam  com- 
passes, used  chiefly  for  setting  out  arcs  of  circles  fuJ' 
size;  those  made  of  gun-metal,  with  steel  points,  are 
the  best,  and  a set  should  be  large  enough  to  take  a 
rod  30  ft.  long. 

Eig-  37-  A spirit  level  for  fixing. 


TOOLS  USED  IN  STONEWORK  21 1 


Trammel  Keitels  k Root 


COPfJVC  or  S PLITTJ  N C BLOCK 

BY  WEDGES 


STONEMASONS1  GUIDE 


The  following  appliances  are  also  required  for  set- 
ting out  work: 

A large  platform  or  drawing  board,  about  io  or  12 
ft.  square;  or  if  larger  than  this,  the  better.  It  maybe 
fixed  either  vertically  or  horizontally. 

A standard  five-foot  rod. 

Two  or  three  straight-edges  of  various  lengths. 

Pine  rods  for  story  rods,  and  for  setting  out  lengths 
of  cornices,  modillions,  dentils,  etc. 

Pipe-clay  and  stiff  brush,  for  cleaning  off  board, 
rods,  etc. 

Sheet  zinc  for  moulds,  usually  No.  9 gauge,  this 
being  a good  workable  thickness.  The  lines  for  face, 
bed,  and  section  moulds  have  to  be  carefully  trans- 
ferred to  the  sheet  zinc,  and  cut  to  their  proper  contour 
or  shapes  with  shears  and  files. 

The  foregoing  lists  do  not  comprise  all  the  tools  and 
appliances  required  for  every  branch  of  masonry,  but 
only  those  which  are  in  common  use. 

All  cutting  tools  are  made  of  the  best  cast  steel, 
except  the  pick,  axe,  and  spalling  hammer,  which  are 
sometimes  of  iron,  steel  pointed  and  faced. 


NAMES  OE  WROUGHT  STONE 

There  are  three  classes  of  stones  made  use  of  for 
building  purposes;  namely,  rough  stones  as  they  are 
taken  from  the  quarry,  stones  squared  and  dressed  in  a 
rough  manner,  stones  dressed  and  squared  accurately. 

Stones,  rough  and  left  unsquared,  are  called  “rub- 
ble.” When  stones  are  roughly  squared  and  dressed, 
they  may  be  “quarry  faced”;  that  is,  the  face  is  left 
just  as  it  came  from  the  quarry;  or  it  may  be  “pitched 
faced,”  or  “rock  faced,”  in  which  case  the  face  will 


NAMES  OF  WROUGHT  STONE 


213 


B 


project  beyond  the  face  of  the  joint;  or  it  may  be 
“drafted,”  in  which  the  face  is  surrounded  with  a 
chisel  draft  to  allow  of  the  joints 
being  flush  on  the  face. 

In  cut  and  dressed  stones,  there 
are:  1,  the  rough  pointed;  2,  the 
fine  pointed;  3,  the  crandaled;  4, 
the  tooth  axed;  5,  bush  hammered; 
6,  rubbed;  7,  diamond  paneled. 
There  are  also  other  finished 
stones,  that  will  be  discussed  in 
future  pages. 

The  illustrations  (Fig.  39)  show 
the  different  stones  when  finished. 

These  exhibit  the  various  forms 
of  dressing  stone  commonly  used. 

A shows  a boasted  or  chiseled 
face,  sometimes  termed  droved 
work.  The  face  is  finished  with 
a boaster,  and  the  strokes  are 
generally  regular  and  parallel  to 
each  other. 

In  hard-grit  stones  this  face  is 
usually  left  as  finished,  and  when, 
as  in  the  case  of  a building,  the 
whole  of  the  ashlar  and  plain  work 
is  chiseled  to  the  same  angle  of 
inclination,  the  effect  is  pleasing. 

In  softer  stones  a finished  face 
is  formed  by  rubbing  the  boasted 
face  with  sand  and  water,  and 
removing  all  chisel  marks;  it.  is 
then  called  plain  ashlar. 

B shows  ashlar  with  tooled  face. 


Fig.  39- 


214 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


This  is  formed  with  a broad  tool,  or  wide  boaster,  by 
a regular  succession  of  strokes,  parallel  to  each  other, 
extending  across  the  whole  width  of  stone,  and  when 
finished  shows  a series  of  flutes  or  channels,  the  size 
of  flutes  depending  on  the  texture  of  the  stone. 

Considerable  skill  is  required  in  tooling  neatly,  and 
the  tooling  is  somewhat  costly,  the  surface  having  first 
to  be  worked  to  a boasted  face. 

C shows  ashlar  with  pick  or  pecked  face,  and  tooled 
margin. 

This  is  produced  with  a point,  or  in  the  case  of 
granite  with  the  pick,  and  can  be  worked  to  any  degree 
of  fineness. 

D shows  ashlar  with  punched  rock  face,  and  tooled 
margin. 

This  is  similar  to  the  last  mentioned,  but  much 
coarser.  In  producing  it,  the  punch  is  driven  in 
almost  vertical  to  the  face  until  the  stone  bursts  out, 
leaving  a series  of  cavities.  When  regularly  done  it 
looks  well,  and  is  very  effective,  and  for  large  work  it 
gives  the  appearance  of  boldness  and  solidity. 

E shows  ashlar  with  broached  lace,  and  tooled 
margin. 

This  is  produced  with  a point,  which  forms  a furrow 
with  rough  ridges,  and  is  worked  across  the  stone  to 
the  required  angle. 

F shows  ashlar  with  rusticated  face,  and  tooled 
margin. 

This  is  worked  with  small  chisels  and  points,  and 
sunk  down  about  half  an  inch,  leaving  a plain,  narrow 
margin  on  face;  the  pattern  is  irregular,  but  easily 
adapted  to  any  space. 

G is  a rebated  or  rustic  quoin,  with  vermiculated 
face. 


NAMES  OF  WROUGHT  STONE 


215 


Fig.  40. 


This  is  cut  out  with  small  chisels,  and  has  the 
appearance  of  being  worm-eaten. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  stones  for  dress  finishing 
they  must  first  be  brought  to  a flat  surface  on  one 
side.  This  flat  surface  or  face  may  be  “winding/’  or 
it  may  be  a plain,  flat  surface  similar  to  that  shown  in 
Figs.  40  and  41. 

When  the  bed,  or 
one  plane  surface, 
has  been  produced, 
the  required  shape  of 
the  sides  of  the  block 
are  marked  upon  the 
surface  with  the  aid 
of  a square  or  tem- 
plate. Drafts  are  then 
sunk  by  the  chisel  across  the  extremities  of  an  adja- 
cent face  with  the  aid  of  a square  (Fig.  40),  or  bevel  if 
the  sides  are  not  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  bed,  and 
a second  face  is  obtained  between  such  drafts.  The 

process  is  repeated 
for  the  third  face, 
and  so  on,  until  the 
block  has  been 
brought  to  the  de- 
sired form. 

Regularly  winding 
surfaces  may  be  ob- 
tained in  various 
ways.  The  simplest  plan  is  when  the  stone  is  worked 
to  the  proper  planes  and  angles,  as  just  described, 
to  set  off  the  amount  of  the  winding,  Aa,  Fig.  42, 
on  the  arris  and  draw  the  drafts,  lines  aB , aC.  A 
series  of  lines,  as  be,  cf  dg , are  then  drawn  parallel 


Fig.  41. 


216 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


with  A a,  and  another  series,  eh,  ft,  gk,  parallel  to  AC. 
The  drafts  being  sunk  at  these,  so  that  a straight  edge 
coincides  from  b to  h,  or  c to  i,  or  d to  k,  the  surface  is 
wrought  so  that  when  the  rule  is  applied  parallel  to  the 
plane  A a B,  it  may 
coincide  with  the  sur- 
face at  every  point.  If 
one  end  of  the  stone  is 
less  in  length  than  the 
other,  (Fig.  43),  the  line 
aB  must  be  divided  into 
equal  parts,  and  the 
lines  be,  cf  dg,  drawn 
parallel  to  A a.  The 
line  CD  is  then  divided 
into  the  same  number 


Fig.  42. 


of  equal  parts  in  h,  i,  k\  then  ch,  ft,  gk  are  joined  in- 
stead of  being  drawn  parallel  to  AC.  The  drafts  are 
then  sunk  until  a straight  edge  agrees  from  b to  h,  and 

so  on,  and  then  the  sur- 
face is  dressed  so  that 
Bthe  straight  edge  will 
coincide  in  a direction 
parallel  to  the  plane 
A a B. 

Winding  surfaces  may 
likewise  be  formed  by 
the  use  of  two  rules,  one 
having  parallel  and  the 
other  divergent  edges. 
These  are  sunk  in  drafts 
across  the  two  ends  of 


Fig.  43- 


the  stone  until  their  upper  edges  are  out  of  winding. 
The  ends  of  these  drafts  are  then  connected  by  means 


NAMES  OF  WROUGHT  STONE  *1} 

of  two  others  formed  along  the  sides  of  the  block* 
and  the  entire  surface  worked  down  to  them  until 
it  coincides  with  a straight-edge  placed  in  a direc- 
tion parallel  to  the  drafts.  The  rules  used  in  this  proc- 
ess are  known  as  “twisting  rules/’  one  of  which,  as 
at  A,  Fig.  44,  is,  of  course,  simply  a straight  edge 
with  parallel  to  opposite  edges.  The  other,  B,  is 
termed  a “winding  strip,”  and  that  portion  of  it  which 
coincides  with  the  twist  of  the  stone,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  is,  of  necessity,  a triangle. 

The  formation  of 
mouldings,  columns 
and  the  work  of  the 
carver  and  sculptor, 
as  well  as  that  of  the 
marble  mason  and 
statuary,  form  a spe- 
cial branch  of  the 
trade,  which  com- 
prises the  production  of  such  parts  as  enriched  cor- 
nices, capitals,  etc.,  and  is  necessarily  valued  by  the 
time  expended  upon  it;  the  value  of  the  time  varying, 
in  the  higher  class  of  carvings,  with  the  artistic  repu- 
tation of  the  man  employed,  and,  as  this  work  is  not 
intended  to  teach  the  higher  artistic  phases  of  the  art 
of  masonry,  such  matter  will  be  left  to  be  dealt  with 
in  another  volume  that  may  follow  this  in  the  near 
future.  The  wall  mason  builds  all  stone  constructions 
and,  from  the  irregular  shapes  and  sizes  of  the  mate- 
rials generally  at  his  command  for  building  purposes, 
is  constantly  called  upon  to  exercise  an  amount  of 
judgment  and  skill  far  beyond  what  is  required  to 
make  a good  bricklayer,  who  mostly  lays  his  regular- 
shaped bricks  according  to  fixed  rules,  which  he  knows 


218 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


by  heart,  and  ought  not  to  depart  from.  The  rougher 
the  materials,  the  more  skill  is  required  in  putting 
them  together;  whilst  the  greater  the  labor  expended 
in  dressing  them  to  regular  shapes,  the  easier  is  the 
task  the  wall  mason  has  to  perform. 

Large  face  moulds  are  sometimes  made  of  several 
pieces  of  timber  framed  together. 

When  the  beds  of  the  courses  are  to  be  plane  and 
level  they  can  be  set  correctly  by  the  level  and  com- 
mon straight-edge.  When  they  are  to  be  planes  hav- 
ing a given  shape  a rule  must  be  employed  having  two 
straight  edges  inclined  to  each  other  at  such  an  angle 
that,  when  one  edge  is  set  horizontal  by  the  spirit- 
level,  the  other  has  the  proper  inclination.  If  the  beds 
of  the  courses  are  to  be  perpendicular  to  a straight  or 
curved  battering  face,  their  position  can  be  set  out  and 
tested  by  the  square. 

Curved  beds,  such  as  are  employed  for  some  special 
purposes,  require  the  use  of  suitably  curved  bed  moulds. 

In  all  cases  in  which  economy  of  time  and  money 
has  to  be  studied,  the  workman  should,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, avoid  curved  figures  in  masonry;  for  not  only 
are  they  more  tedious  and  expensive  to  set  out,  and  to 
build  than  straight  and  plane  figures,  but  it  is  more 
difficult  to  test  the  accuracy  with  which  they  have  been 
executed.  A single  glance  will  detect  the  small- 
est appreciable  inaccuracy  in  a wall  with  a straight 
batter,  while  the  same  process  in  the  case  of  a wall 
with  a curved  batter,  would  require  either  a long 
series  of  measurements,  or  the  application  of  cumbrous 
face-mould  to  various  parts  of  the  wall;  and  this 
becomes  a matter  of  serious  importance  in  large  struc- 
tures, where  errors  in  form  may  affect  the  strength  and 
stability. 


NAMES  OF  WROUGHT  STONE  219 

All  stones,  except  under  peculiar  circumstances, 
should  be  laid  on  their  natural  or  quarry  beds , or  with 
their  natural  beds  as  far  as  possible  perpendicular  to 
the  pressure  they  have  to  bear.  The  strength  and 
durability  of  the  stone  depends  on  this  being  done — 
even  in  cases  in  which  the  natural  beds  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished by  an  unpracticed  eye — for  few  stones  will 
bear  the  same  pressure  applied  in  the  direction  of  their 
lines  of  stratification  as  at  right  angles  to  them;  more- 
over, if  the  bed  of  a stone  is  exposed  on  the  face  of  a 
wall,  the  water  will  get  in  between  its  layers,  and  frost 
will  soon  cause  layer  after  layer  to  peel  off;  hence  it 
follows  that  in  projecting  undercut  mouldings  and 
weathered  coping  the  natural  beds  should  be  placed 
parallel  to  the  side-joints. 

The  careful  bonding  of  the  masonry  must  be  attended 
to.  A wall  built  of  the  roughest  stones  ought  to  be 
perfectly  stable,  though  no  mortar  is  used. 

The  principles  of  bond,  by  the  stones  overlapping 
and  breaking  joint  throughout  the  wall,  are  the  same 
as  in  brickwork,  and  should  be  thoroughly  understood 
by  the  mason,  for  upon  their  skillful  application  his 
reputation  as  a good  waller  depends. 

All  dry  and  porous  stones  should  be  well  wetted 
before  being  laid  in  mortar,  so  as  to  absorb  the  mois- 
ture required  for  the  proper  setting  of  the  mortar. 

All  joints  should  be  filled  up  solid  with  mortar. 

The  thickness  of  the  bed-joints,  depending  on  the 
smoothness  of  the  beds,  must  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
any  unequal  bearing  resulting  from  actual  contact 
between  any  irregularities  on  them. 

Where  a good  appearance  is  aimed  at,  all  stones 
exposed  to  view  should  be  selected  free  from  stains, 
chiefly  caused  by  oxides  of  iron. 


220 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Iron  should  never  be  placed  in  contact  with  stone- 
work where,  by  rusting,  it  might  disfigure  it  with 
stains,  or  split  the  stone  by  its  increase  in  bulk  during 
the  process  of  oxidation,  or  by  its  expanding  and  con- 
tracting under  the  influence  of  heat  and  cold. 

In  order  to  understand  the  practical  operations  of 
building  in  stone,  it  is  necessary  to  explain  the  differ- 
ent descriptions  of  masonry  in  ordinary  use.  These 
may,  as  before  explained,  be  included  under  one  of 
the  three  following  heads,  viz.:  Rubble,  Block-in- 
course,  Ashlar. 

If  the  stone  at  disposal  is  thinly  bedded,  rough  or 
intractable,  it  should  be  used  as  rubble-work;  if  obtain- 
able in  blocks,  and  more  or  less  easily  wrought,  it 
should  be  used  as  block-in-course,  or  ashlar , according  to 
circumstances. 

RUBBLE  MASONRY 

In  rubble-work  stones  of  irregular  size  and  shape  are 
laid  in  a wall,  after  having  been  more  or  less  assorted, 
roughly  shaped  to  fit  one  against  another,  and  hammer- 
dressed  on  their  faces  with  the  waller’s  hammer, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  work  required. 

In  the  rougher  kinds  of  rubble-work  no  selecting  of 
the  stones  takes  place,  but  the  waller,  having  once  taken 
one  up,  places  it  in  the  wall  as  it  will  lie  best,  pack- 
ing in  smaller  stones  between  the  larger  ones.  The 
stones  should  be  placed  on  their  best  beds,  and  not  on 
their  points,  which  would  be  liable  to  crush,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  wedge-like  action  of  such  stone,  in  the 
interior  of  a wall,  tending  to  dislodge  the.  facework. 
No  attention  whatever  is  paid  to  the  joints  being  more 
horizontal  or  vertical  than  naturally  results  from  the 
bedding  and  cleavage  of  the  stone  used,  upon  which 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


221 


the  degree  of  regularity  in  the  appearance  of  the  work 
mainly  depends. 

In  rubble  masonry  the  rough  nature  of  the  work 
leaves  many  spaces  between  the  joints,  both  on  the 
face  and  interior  of  the  wall;  these  should  be  carefully 
packed  up  or  pinned  with  spalls,  which  are  the  pieces 
knocked  off  the  rougher  stones  in  order  to  get  them 
to  fit  into  place. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  hearting  or  interior  of 
a rubble  wall  is  well  packed  with  spalls  and  mortar, 


Fig.  45. 


and  not  left  full  of  hollows  or  mortar  alone;  to  ascer- 
tain whether  this  has  been  done,  take  the  waller’s 
trowel  and  plunge  it  in  different  places  into  the  heart 
of  the  wall. 

The  spalls  must  not  be  placed  in  the  heart  of  the 
wall  so  as  to  drive  like  wedges  when  the  weight  from 
above  comes  on  them,  or  the  facing  stones  will  be 
forced  out. 

Attention  is  necessary  during  the  building  of  rubble, 
as  well  as  all  masonry  walls,  to  insure  their  being  well 
bonded  transversely,  and  not  built  up  with  two  thin 


222 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


///  yy 

r,. 

scales  on  each  face,  tied  together  by  through  stones, 
with  the  core  or  hearting  merely  filled  in  with  small 
pieces.  This  is  a very  common  fault  with  masons, 
who  will  rely  upon  the  mortar  to  give  stability  to  a 
wall  which,  without  it,  would  fall  to  pieces  under  its 
own  weight. 

The  best  stones  for  rubble  masonry  are  those  that 
scabble  freely,  and  such  as  lie  in  4 or  5-inch  beds. 
Basalts  and  stones 
of  a crystalline 
structure  are 
troublesome  to 
use,  as  they  fly 
under  the  hammer, 
but  granite  and 
sandstones  work 
in  well. 

Rubble  may  be 
either  uncoursed , 
irregidar  or  random 
coursed , worked  up 
to  courses , or 
coursed , chiefly  de- 
pending upon  the 
character  of  the 
stone  at  disposal. 

Some  stones,  from 
their  intractable 

nature,  and  the  absence  of  any  distinct  lines  of  bed- 
ding, are  especially  adapted  for  uncoursed  rubble 
(Fig.  45),  whilst  other  stones  have  lines  of  layers  or 
courses  and  therefore  should  be  used  in  square  rubble, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  46. 

A portion  of  a structure  in  random  rubble  is  shown 


////// 

4//  / 

r 


///  /// 


'/  y/  /'' 

P / / , 


Fig.  46. 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


223 


in  Fig.  47.  This  shows  the  quoins  or  corners  in  vari- 
ously finished  stones,  all  of  which  are  named  on  the 
illustrations. 

Random,  common  or  rough  rubble,  built  up  to 
courses,  is  indicated  in  Fig.  48;  the  courses  vary  in 
depth  from  12  to  18  inches.  The  remarks  made 
above  apply  to  this  discription. 


Square  uncoursed,  random  coursed,  irregular 
coursed,  snecked  or  squared  rubble,  are  five  names 
implying  practically  the  same  description  of  work.  It 
is  shown  in  Fig.  49,  A.  There  is  a certain  amount  of 
coursing,  but  it  is  not  regular  or  continuous;  jumpers 
are  used,  but  no  spalls,  and,  if  careful  attention  can  be 


224 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


given  to  bond,  the  strength  of  the  wall  is  considerable. 

Random  with  hammer-dressed  joints  and  no  spalls 
on  face,  or  close-pricked  polygonal  ragwork,  often 
called  “cobweb”  rubble,  is  shown  in  Fig.  49,  C.  Joints 
lie  in  all  directions  and  considerable  skill  and  experi- 
ence are  required  to  make  good  work.  Freestone  is 
seldom  used  in  this  description  of  walling,  as  it  is 
chiefly  formed  with  broken  boulders,  or  field  stones 
that  have  been  split  apart  by  dynamite  or  other 
explosives. 


O /?  24-  J6  *8  € o 

1 — » ’ - • 1 


Fig.  48. 


Regular  coursed  rubble  (Fig.  49,  D) — a very  perfect 
bond  can  be  obtained  in  this  class  of  work.  The 
courses  often  vary  in  depth,  but  are  seldom  more  than 
9 or  10  inches  deep.  Good  stone  found  in  thin  beds  in 
the  quarry  is  commonly  used. 

Joints  in  any  of  these  examples  may  be  galleted  by 
driving  into  them,  from  the  face,  chips  of  flint  or  hard 
stone. 

Technical  terms  in  connection  with  walling  differ  so 
much  in  different  parts  of  the  country  that  it  is  often 
advisable  to  build  a small  sample  for  reference  in 
pricing  quantities. 

In  the  rougher  descriptions  of  rubblework,  lacing 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


22$ 


courses  are  used  to  give  the  wall  additional  cohesive 
strength;  they  are  two  or  more  well-bonded  courses  of 
masonry  or  brickwork  laid  at  short  vertical  intervals. 

Block  in  course,  or  hammer-dressed  ashlar  (Figs. 
50,  A,  and  51,  A),  is  intermediate  between  the  best 
rubble  and  ashlar.  The  coursing  is  regular,  and  the 


Fig.  49. 


blocks  are  roughly  squared;  it  is  frequently  constructed 
of  shoddies,  which  are  sound  stones  less  than  12  inches 
deep.  The  length  of  each  stone  should  be  from  three 
to  five  times  its  depth,  and  the  breadth  from  one  and  a 
half  to  twice  its  depth.  The  exact  proportions  depend 
on  the  degree  of  resistance  which  the  stone  offers  to 


226 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


cross  breaking.  The  same  rules  as  to  proportions 
apply  to  ashlar  work 

Ashlar  is  in  large  blocks,  squared  and  regular  in  size, 
laid  in  courses  varying  in  depth  from  about  10  to  about 
14  inches;  the  bed  joints  should  be  out  of  winding,  but 

not  smooth,  and  should 
never  be  worked  slack 
(hollow  on  bed)  and 
underpinned  with  spalls, 
as  in  Fig.  55, B;  such  a 
practice  concentrates  the 
weight  on  a small  area, 
and  leads  to  crushing  or 
to  the  joints  flushing,  that 
is,  the  arrises  breaking. 

Joints  should  be  as  thin  as  the  class  of  work  allows, 
but  never  so  as  to  leave  an  insufficient  cushion  of  mor- 
tar to  spread  the  pressure  over  the  whole  joint,  as 
this  would  lead  to  flushed  joints.  Sheet  lead  has 


Fig.  51, A. 


L 

1 

( 

■ H h 

1 

1 — — r~ 

Fig.  51,  B. 


Fig.  52, B. 


been  inserted  in  joints  subject  to  great  pressure,  to 
equalize  it;  but  it  is  found  that  it  squeezes  outward 
and  flushes  the  joints,  thus  more  than  counterbalancing 
any  good  it  may  do. 

When  the  courses  throughout  the  face  of  the  build** 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


227 


BLOCKING  (( 


Jjt/*S£  \ 


CHAMP. 


ing  are  all  of  the  same  depth,  the  ashlar  is  regular 
coursed  (Figs.  52  and  53).  If  they  vary  in  depth,  it  is 
irregular  coursed;  if  the  courses  are  not  continuous, 
but  broken,  it  is  random  ashlar,  but  the  last  class  of 
work  is  unusual.  The  bond 
adopted  follows  the  general 
idea  of  Flemish,  but  as  all 
stones  are  not  of  the  same  size, 
considerable  freedom  is  allowed 
in  bonding,  and,  except  in  the 
best  class  of  work,  no  attempt 
is  made  to  keep  the  perpends. 

The  courses  should  range  with 
the  quoin  stones  and  dressings. 

Joints  can  be  made  less  than 
one-eighth  inch  thick.  Plasterer’s  putty  is  frequently 
used  to  make  the  outer  part  of  the  joint;  it  extends 
inward  about  two  inches.  Before  being  set,  each  stone 


'IF” 

PI  AN  Of 
SAD  01  £ JOINT 


Figs.  52  and  53. 


Fig.  53. A. 


is  laid  dry  in  its  place  to  ascertain  that  it  truly  fits. 
The  amount  of  work  on  the  face  of  ashlar  varies  very 
considerably;  a drafted  margin  round  a rough  face  is 
the  minimum. 


228 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Rebated  joints  and  V-joints  are  shown  in  Figs.  55,8. 
54, B,  and  55,  B.  They  are  used  to  emphasize  the  joints, 
and  at  the  same  time  they  prevent  them  from  flushing. 

Ashlar,  so  treated,  is  called  rusticated. 

A wall  built  of  solid  ashlar  is  necessarily  costly,  and 
the  term  has  come  almost  to  imply  a facing  of  ashlar 
with  a backing  of  rubble  or  brickwork.  The  ashlar  is 
.often  only  four  inches  and  seldom  more  than  six  inches 
(thick,  with  bond  stones  projecting  into  the  backing. 

Fig.  55, A.  Fig.  55, B. 


Fig.  54,  B. 


Figs.  52  and  53,  A,  show  examples  of  brick  ashlar  and 
rubble  ashlar.  The  ashlar  should  average  about  8 
inches  on  the  bed,  and  should  bond  transversely  with 
the  backing.  Headers  of  a length  at  least  two-thirds 
of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  should  be  laid,  one  to 
every  superficial  yard  of  face.  The  backing,  if  of 
rubble,  should  be  built  in  courses,  each  leveled  up  to 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


229 


coincide  with  the  ashlar  courses.  If  of  brick,  the  ashlar 
courses  must  be  of  suitable  depth  to  allow  of  the  same 
treatment.  The  greater  number  and  greater  thickness 
of  the  joints  in  the  rubble  or  brickwork  lead  to  more 
compression  in  the  backing  than  in  the  facing,  and 
this  tends  to  cause  the  wall  to  bulge  outward.  This 
effect  can  be  to  a large  extent  avoided  by  building  in 
cement  or  a quick  setting  mortar.  Badly  built  walls 
of  this  description  are  very  liable  to  collapse  in  case 
of  fire,  owing  to  the  differing  behavior  under  heat  of 
the  back  and  face. 

Some  may  be  roughly  squared  at  the  quarry;  it  is 
then  said  to  be  hammer  dressed  or  quarry  pitched. 
Afterward  it  is  sawed  to  size,  half  sawing  being  charged 
to  each  of  the  two  blocks  produced  by  one  cut.  Saw- 
ing is  now  largely  done  by  machinery.  Plain  work  is 
the  labor  on  a stone  to  “take  it  out  of  winding,”  or 
reduce  it  to  a plane  surface.  Half  plain  work  is  simi- 
lar, but  is  more  roughly  done,  as  for  beds  and  joints. 
Self  faced,  natural  faced,  rock  faced,  are  terms  all  of 
the  same  meaning,  and  indicate  that  the  face  of  the 
stone  is  left  rough  as  from  the  quarry,  though  it  may 
have  been  scabbled  with  the  hammer  to  remove  irregu- 
lar projections.  A wall  built  of  natural  faced  stone 
sometimes  is  called  rustic  face  (see  quoin  stone  in  Fig. 
47),  but  it  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  rusticated 
joints  mentioned  above. 

A stone  is  taken  out  of  winding  by  cutting  with  the 
chisel  a drafted  margin  along  each  edge  of  its  face, 
as  shown,  and  by  means  of  a straight-edge  bringing 
them  all  into  a plane;  the  intervening  space  is  then 
worked  down  to  the  same  plane.  If  the  plane  surface 
be  obtained  by  means  of  a point  instead  of  a chisel,  it 
is  called  pointed  work;  the  drafted  margin  is,  how- 


230 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ever,  first  made  with  the  chisel.  When  the  chisel 
marks  are  parallel  and  regular,  but  not  continuous 
it  is  called  boasted  or  droved  work;  when  they  are 
parallel,  regular,  and  continuous,  it  is  called  tooled 
work.  Stroked  work  is  similar  to  the  last,  but  the 
lines  make  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  edge.  Soft 
stones  are  taken  out  of  winding  with  a comb  or  drag, 
which  often  is  merely  a piece  of  a joiner’s  saw. 

Rubbed  work  is  plain  work  rubbed  to  a smooth  sur- 
face; a rub  stone  is  used  with  sand  and  water  for  this 
purpose.  Some  stones,  such  as  marble,  can  afterwards 
be  polished  to  a glassy  surface.  Vermiculated  work  is 
indicated  in  Fig.  39.  Sunk  work  is  any  cutting  below 
the  plain  surface,  as  in  rebating  or  weatherings. 
Circular  work  is  the  labor  required  to  form  convex  sur- 
faces, as  the  shafts  of  columns.  Circular  sunk  work  is 
the  labor  required  to  form  concave  surfaces,  as  in 
stone  channels.  Circular  circular  work  is  the  labor 
required  to  form  such  a surface  as  a sphere  or  a basin- 
shaped hollow.  Moulded  work  is  when  a moulding  of 
any  profile  is  worked  on  the  edge  of  a stone,  as  the 
cornice  in  Figs.  49  and  52.  Circular  moulded  work  is, 
in  bills  of  quantities,  always  kept  separate  from 
straight,  and  is  charged  at  a higher  rate.  Work  is 
called  stopped  when  the  labor,  whether  sunk  or 
moulded,  is  not  continuous  to  the  end  of  the  stone,  as 
the  chamfer  on  the  stone  head  in  Fig.  49. 

Quoins  may  be  built  of  larger  or  differently  worked 
stones  from  the  remainder  of  the  wall.  A brick  quoin 
may  be  built  to  a rubble  wall,  and  more  rarely  to  ashlar 
work,  as  in  Fig.  51.  In  some  varieties  of  rubble  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  construct  a sound  quoin  unless 
material  superior  to  the  bulk  of  the  wall  be  used. 

Ashlar  work  is  constantly  used  for  the  dressings  to 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


231 


windows  and  doors  in  brick  and  rubble  walls;  Fig.  47 
is  an  example.  Reveals  with  recesses  may  be  formed 
as  in  Figs.  50  and  51. 

Stone  window-sills  for  sashes  and  casements  should 
be  set  to  project  about  2 inches  from  the  wall  face; 
they  are  weathered  and  throated,  so  that  rain-water 
may  run  off  the  surface  and  drop  clear  of  the  wall 
beneath.  They  may  be  moulded  on  the  front,  and 
stools  are  worked  on  the  ends  for  the  brick  or  stone 
jambs  to  rest  on. 

To  prevent  water  from  being  blown  in  between  the 
stone  sill  and  the  wood  sill  resting  on  it,  a water- 
tongue,  usually  of  galvanized  iron,  1 yi  in.  by  % in.,  is 
set  in  a groove  in  the  stone  and  wood;  it  and  the  wood 
sill  should  be  bedded  on  the  stone  with  white  lead 
ground  in  oil.  If  sills  are  set  flush  with  the  wall,  a 
separate  drip  mould  (Fig.  47)  should  be  fixed  imme- 
diately below  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a throating. 

Window-heads  are  made  as  wide  on  the  bed  as  the 
reveal;  the  head  of  frame  is  behind  them,  with  lintel 
(with  or  without  relieving  arch)  over.  A separate  drip 
mould  over  the  head,  as  in  Fig.  47,  protects  it  from 
water  stains  from  above. 

Coping  stones  are  made  in  many  forms,  and  are 
often  handsomely  moulded.  As  their  purpose  is  to 
keep  wet  out  of  the  wall,  they  should  be  chosen  as 
nearly  impervious  to  moisture  as  may  be,  cut  in  long 
lengths,  say  5 feet  or  so,  to  reduce  the  number  of 
joints,  weathered  and  throated,  and  set  and  jointed  in 
cement.  These  are  respectively  parallel  saddle-back, 
and  feather-edge  coping;  the  first  should  only  be  used 
in  inclined  situations,  as  on  gable  walls.  Raking 
copings  are  prevented  from  sliding  by  dowels  built 
into  the  bed  on  which  they  rest.  The  same  object  5s 


*32 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


served  by  kneelers,  which  are  coping  stones  provided 
with  horizontal  tails  (Fig.  47).  There  may  be  several 
of  these  in  a large  gable.  Those  at  the  foot  are  some- 
times in  the  form  of  corbels  (Fig.  47),  when  they  are 
called  skew  corbels.  The  large  triangular  stone  at  the 
head  of  a gable  (Fig.  47)  is  variously  called  summer 
stone,  saddle  stone,  or  ridge  stone. 

A cornice  at  the  head  of  a wall  (Figs.  49  and  52)  may 
be  one  or  more  stones  in  height,  moulded  in  front, 
and  weathered  and  throated.  There  should  always  be 
sufficient  tail  weight  for  the  stone  to  rest  in  its  place 
without  the  assistance  of  the  cement  mortar  in  which 
it  is  bedded  and  jointed.  Vertical  cramps,  say  2 in. 
by  in.,  4 or  5 feet  long,  and  one  to  each  length  of 
stone,  or  a blocking  course,  may  be  added  to  increase 
the  stability. 

In  addition  to  mortar  or  cement,  special  connec- 
tions, such  as  cramps,  dowels  and  joggles,  may  be 
adopted  for  binding  stones  together;  these  terms  are 
used  rather  loosely  and  sometimes  interchangeably. 
A cramp  is  a connecting  piece  of  metal,  slate,  or  hard 
stone,  so  shaped  that  it  holds  two  stones  together. 
A dowel  is  a short,  thick  pin  or  narrow  plate  of  metal, 
slate  or  stone,  fitting  into  two  sockets;  it  is  sometimes 
called  a plug,  especially  when  fixed  in  the  bed  joint,  or 
when  it  is  formed  by  running  molten  lead  into  a dowel 
hole.  Joggle  is  a comprehensive  term,  and  include* 
all  cases  where  a projection  on  one  stone  fits  a cor- 
responding sinking  in  the  next. 

Regular  coursed  rubble,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  is 
applicable  where  the  beds,  though  thin,  are  pretty 
regular,  so  that  a sufficient  number  of  stones  of  a uni- 
form depth  can  be  got  to  allow  of  their  being  laid  in 
regular  courses  of  one  stone  only  in  depth. 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


233 


Dry  rubble  walling  is  the  simplest  class  of  rubble 
work,  and  consists  of  stones  roughly  hammered,  and 
bedded  by  pinning  spalls,  without  any  mortar.  It  ' 
requires  considerable  skill  to  lay  a wall  up  of  this  kind 
and  keep  it  up  straight  and  fair  on  both  exteriors. 


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Ir'llll 

Fig.  56. 


This  kind  of  a wall  should  be  wider  at  the  base  than  at 
the  top  or  coping.  They  are  generally  built  to  lines 
strained  through  trestles  or  horses,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
57.  This  saves  much  time,  as  it  avoids  the  necessity 
of  plumbing  the  faces. 

Dry  rubble  walling  is  generally  built  in  courses  about 


Fig.  57. 


12  inches  high,  and  should  have  a water  proof  top,  or 
coping,  to  keep  the  water  from  getting  into  the  body 
of  the  work  and  bursting  it  in  frosty  weather.  The 
coping  may  be  made  of  stones  laid  on  edge  in  mortar 
(Fig.  58)  of  bituminous  concrete,  or,  for  want  of  an y« 
thing  better,  clay  puddle,  or  even  sods. 


234 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Rubble  ashlar  consists  of  an  ashlar  stone  face  wit\ 
rubble  backing  (Fig.  59),  and  is  subject,  even  to  a 
still  greater  extent  than  brick  ashlar,  to  the  evi  s 
caused  by  unequal  settlement. 

To  avoid  these 
evils,  the  stones  and 
joints  of  the  rubble 
backing  should,  as 
before  mentioned,  be 
made  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  the  same 
thickness  as  those  in 
the  ashlar  facing,  or,  if  the  joints  are  necessarily 
thicker,  there  should  be  fewer  of  them,  so  that  the  total 
quantity  of  mortar  in  the  backing  and  face  may  be 
about  the  same.  This  can  seldom  be  economically 

arranged  in  practice, 
but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the 
more  numerous  and 
coarser  the  rubble 
joints,  the  worse 
the  construction  be- 
comes. 

The  ashlar  should 
be  bonded  in  with 
through  stones  or 
“headers,”  as  pre- 
viously described; 
their  vertical  joints 
should  be  carefully 
dressed  for  some  distance  in  from  the  face,  and  their 
beds  should  be  level  throughout;  the  back  joint  and 
sides  of  the  tails  of  the  stones  may,  however,  be  left 


Fig.  59- 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


235 


rough;  the  latter  may  even  taper  in  plan  with  advan« 
tage,  and  they  should  extend  into  the  wall  for  unequal 
distances,  so  as  to  make  a good  bond  with  the  rubble, 
the  headers  from  which  should  reach  well  in  between 
the  bond  stones  of  the  ashlar. 

Through  stones  may  be 
omitted  altogether,  headers 
being  inserted  at  intervals  on 
each  side,  extending  about 
two-thirds  across  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall. 

Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  stones  in  the  ashlar  fac- 
ing have  a depth  of  bed  at 
least  equal  to  the  height  of 
the  stone.  In  common  work 
the  facing  often  consists  merely  of  slabs  of  stone  hav- 
ing not  more  than  from  4 to  6 inches  bed,  with  a thin 
scale  of  rubble  on  the  opposite  side,  the  interval  being 

filled  in  with 
small  rubbish, 
or  by  a large 
quantity  of  mor- 
tar, which  has 
been  known  to 
bulge  the  wall 
by  its  hydro- 
static pressure. 

The  ashlar 
facing  is  in  all 
respects,  except 
those  above  mentioned,  built  as  described  in  the  sec- 
tion on  ashlar,  and  the  backing  may  be  of  random 
rubble  done  in  courses  from  10  to  14  inches  high, 


236 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


according  to  the  depth  of  the  stones  in  the  facing. 

The  illustration.  Fig.  59,  shows  the  section  of  a wall 
3 feet  thick,  with  an  ashlar  facing  composed  of  good  % 
substantial  stone. 

Irregular  rubble,  as  before  stated,  is  built  up  with 
split  boulders,  and  when  finished  has  an  appearance 
as  shown  at  Fig.  60.  When  a good  face  is  formed  and 
nice  joints  made,  this  kind  of  walling  presents  a very 
fine  appearance. 


Fig.  62. 


Coarse  rubble  without  dressed  quoins  has  an  appear- 
ance similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  61. 

Snecked  rubble  is  a method  of  building  in  which 
almost  any  size  of  dressed  stones  may  be  used.  The 
stones  marked  Fig.  62,  are  jumpers,  B are  bonders,  and 
S are  snecks.  Jumpers  must  not  be  used  too  freely  in 
a wall  of  this  description,  or  the  wall  will  collapse, 
especially  if  any  great  weight  is  placed  on  the  top  of 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


237 


the  wall.  Bonders  should  be  evenfy  distributed 
throughout  the  whole  wall  in  order  to  strengthen  it, 
the  name  bonder  showing  that  the  stone  goes  through 
the  wall  to  the  inner  face.  Snecks,  which  determine 
the  name  of  the  wall,  should  be  built  in  as  often  as 
possible.  In  a block  joint  two  stones  are  butted 
against  two  stones,  or  two  stones  are  butted  against 
three  stones  (Fig.  63);  or  the  stones  are  butted  against 
each  other  without  any  attempt  at  bonding  or  breaking 
the  joints. 


TZT ' 1 


m 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


I 


XZE 


JIZII 


X=I 


nzr 


In  Fig.  64  a common  arrangement  with  single  snecks 
beside  each  jumper  is  shown.  In  engineering  works 
on  a large  scale,  this  is  frequently  done  where  a 
masonry  wall  has  to  resist  forces  likely  to  overturn,  or 
having  a tendency  to  overturn,  the  whole  mass,  or  a 
part  of  it.  It  is  claimed  that  the  snecked  work  is 
stronger  than  coursed 
work,  inasmuch  as  each 
jumper  forms  a vertical 
tie  between  two  courses, 
and  tends  to  prevent 
a too  long  horizontal 
course  from  yielding  as 
a hinge. 

Some  engineers  seem  to  consider  that  single  snecks 
place  the  jumpers  too  near  to  one  another,  and  thus 
probably  form  a diagonal  line  of  rupture.  An  arrange- 
ment like  Fig.  65  may  thus  be  preferred  by  some,  giv- 


r~E 


1 1 


Fig.  65. 


238 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ing  a short  course  instead  of  a single  sneck  between 
each  pair  of  jumpers. 

Several  of  the  vertical  joints  in  Fig.  65,  are  badly 
arranged,  tending  to  become  perpends.  Joints  nearly 
vertical  over  one  another  should  be  separated  either 
by  a jumper  or,  if  at  all  possible,  by  two  ordinary 
courses. 

A fault  of  some  of  the  work  executed  is  that  it 
seems  more  like  brickwork  than  masonry.  There 
ought  never  to  be  the  rigid  regularity  of  brick  bond  in 
the  face  of  a masonry  wall.  The  regular  irregularity — 
if  we  may  so  term  it — of  a well-built  wall  shows  the 
skill  of  the  craftsman,  and  is  even  appreciated  by 
those  able  to  judge  as  the  correct  placing  and  true 
economy  of  every  cubic  inch  of  material  which  the 
workman  has  had  at  his  disposal. 

Bond. — The  best  bond  in  masonry  is  that  which 
shows  on  the  face  of  the  work  alternate  headers  and 
stretchers  in  each  course,  as  in  Flemish  bond  in  brick- 
work, each  header  coming  over  the  center  of  a 
stretcher  in  the  course  below.  In  such  work  one-third 
of  the  face  consists  of  headers,  if  the  length  of  the 
stretchers  is  twice  the  breadth  of  the  headers;  but  as 
stones  are  rarely  cut  to  exactly  the  same  dimensions, 
it  may  be  laid  down  that  not  less  than  one-fourth  of 
the  face  of  the  wall  should  consist  of  headers  and  that 
the  stones  should  break  joint  from  once  to  one  and  a 
half  times  the  depth  of  the  course. 

Joints. — The  thickness  of  the  joint  will  vary  from 
one-half  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  according  to  the 
smoothness  of,  or  amount  of  work  bestowed  upon,  the 
beds,  as  it  must  be  sufficient  to  transmit  the  pressures 
from  stone  to  stone,  without  permitting  of  actual  con- 
tact at  any  point  of  their  surfaces.  The  mason’s  joint, 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


239 


or  a properly  struck  joint,  is  the  best  which  can  be 
used. 

Flush  Joints. — Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
use  of  flush  joints,  which  are  formed  by  hollowing  the 
beds  below  the  plane  of  the  chisel  draughts  run  round 
the  edges.  This  was  sometimes  done  by  the  Greeks, 
in  order  to  get  perfectly  close  joints;  but,  by  throwing 
all  the  pressure  on  the  edges  of  the  stones,  they  fre- 
quently splinter  off  and  spoil  the  look  of  the  work. 

As  flush  joints  cannot  be  detected  after  the  stones 
are  laid,  the  masons  must  be  well  looked  after  while  at 
work  upon  them. 

With  a view  of  guarding  against  the  splintering,  or 
spalling , of  the  arrises  of  cut  stonework,  as  in  columns 
carrying  heavy  weights,  seven  or  eight  pounds  sheet- 
lead  is  frequently  placed  between  the  stones.  The 
lead,  which  is  not  allowed  to  reach  within  less  than 
one  inch  of  the  edges  of  the  stones,  is  thought  to 
equalize  the  pressure  over  the  beds  by  yielding  to  any 
slight  irregularities  on  them,  but  the  use  of  lead 
instead  of  mortar  is  a great  mistake.  It  has  been 
found  that  stones  bedded  on  thin  pieces  of  pine,  instead 
of  lead,  equal  in  area  to  the  bed-joint,  bore  a greater 
crushing  force  than  stones  double  their  sectional  area 
bedded  on  lead  in  the  usual  way.  The  lead  which  had 
been  used  showed  no  signs  of  accommodating  itself  to 
the  irregularities  of  the  beds. 

The  joints  of  stone  columns  are  often  raked  out 
about  one  inch  deep,  and  pointed  up  when  there  is  no 
longer  any  fear  of  their  settling.  The  arrises  of  stones 
are  also  prevented  from  spalling  by  cutting  them  back, 
though  this  is  generally  done  merely  to  give  a bolder 
effect  to  certain  parts,  such  as  the  quoins  aiid  lower 
stones  of  buildings. 


240 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Open  Joints. — Open  joints,  resulting  from  projections 
beyond  the  plane  of  the  chisel  draughts,  must  also  be 
avoided,  especially  in  the  beds,  as  tending  to  dis- 
tribute the  pressure  unequally  over  them. 

Rusticated  Joints. — Rustic  work  properly  applies  to 
facework  left  rough  from  the  hammer,  though  it  also 
applies  to  a debased  class  of  masonry, 
picked  into  deep  holes,  or  honeycombed 
all  over,  to  give  a rough  effect;  but  the 
term  rustication,  or  rusticated,  is  also 
much  used  to  denote  masonry  in  which 
the  joints  are  either  chamfered,  or  sunk 
square  below  the  facework. 

Saddle  or  Water-Joints. — In  addition 
to  the  slopmg  off  or  weathering  of  the 
upper  surfaces  of  stonework  exposed 
to  the  rain,  as  in  coping  , cornices,  and  string  courses, 
it  is  well  to  saddle  the  joints,  by  leaving  them  rather 
higher  than  the  rest  of  the  work,  as  in  Fig.  66,  in  order 
to  throw  the  rain  away  from  the  joints,  and  so  prevent 
any  water  finding  its  way  through  them,  and  down  the 
face  of  the  work.  Such  joints  are  called  water-joints . 

Rebating. — The  adhesion  of  mortar  or  cement,  and 
the  weight  of  the  stones  themselves,  cannot  always 
be  relied  upon  as  affording 
sufficient  stability  to  stone- 
work, especially  when  not 
built  into  the  body  of  the  work, 
where  they  would  be  held  in 
place  by  the  superincumbent  weight;  hence  different 
methods  are  resorted  to  in  order  to  give  additional 
stability,  such  as  rebates,  joggles,  cramps,  lead  plugs,  etc. 

A rebated  or  lap  joint  (Fig.  67)  is  formed  by  cutting 
t away  a portion  of  the  edge  of  each  stone,  so  as  to 


Fig.  66. 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


24} 


allow  them  to  lap  over  each  other.  Fig.  68  shows  the 
proper  way  of  making  a rebated  joint  on  a slope,  as  in 
the  case  of  a barge  course  or  coping  on  the  gable  end 
of  a building;  water  is  thus  effectually  kept  out,  which 
would  not  be  tne  case  if  the  side  a were  uppermost. 

Joggling. — Stones  are  said  to  be  joggled  together 
when  prevented  from  sliding  by  a projection  or  he-jog - 
gle , on  one  stone,  fitting  into  a 
corresponding  notch,  or  she  joggle , 
in  the  other  stone  (Fig.  69). 


Fig.  68. 


Fig.  69. 


The  he-joggle  is  generally  cut  square,  and  should 
taper  slightly  from  the  shoulder  to  the  end,  being 
stronger  and  easier  to  cut  and  fit  into  place  when  so 
made.  If,  instead  of  one  or  more  square  joggles,  the 
joggling  is  continued  along  the  joint,  it  becomes  a 
tongued  and  grooved  joint ; 


Fig.  70.  Fig.  71. 


Doweling. — The  above  methods,  except  in  special 
cases,  as  in  Fig.  68,  are  wasteful  both  of  labor  and 
material;  a better  plan,,  therefore,  is  to  sink,  exactly 
opposite  each  other,  two  she-joggles  or  dowel  holes,  one 
in  each  stone,  either  circular  or  square  in  section,  and 
fit  into  them  a dowel  or  pin  (Fig.  70),  either  of  some 


242 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


hard  stone,  such  as  greenstone,  granite  or  slate,  of 
brass,  zinc,  or  copper. 

Copper  dowels  are  the  best,  but  very  expensive;  iron 
are  the  strongest,  but  should  not  be  used  unless  per- 
fectly secured  from  air  and  moisture,  for  fear  of  their 
cracking  the  stone  during  the  process  of  oxidizing, 
and  as  an  additional  precaution  they  should  be  thor- 
oughly tinned  or  galvanized. 

There  is  nothing,  perhaps,  better,  on  the  whole,  than 
good  hard  slate  dowels  run  with  brimstone  or  cement. 

Where  very  perfect  workmanship  is  required,  as  well 
as  when  placed  so  as  not  to  admit  of  being  run  in,  the 
pins  are  made  to  fit  the 
dowel  holes  accurately, 
being  slightly  tapered 
towards  the  ends,  to 
secure  a good  fit  and 
facilitate  the  setting  of 
the  stones. 

Lead  Plugs. — In  con- 
necting stones  by  means 
of  lead,  plug  holes,  which  may  be  dovetailed  if  thought 
necessary,  are  made,  one  in  each  stone,  exactly  opposite 
each  other,  as  in  Fig.  71,  with  a channel  leading  to  them 
from  the  top  of  the  joint,  through  which  molten  lead  is 
run  into  them.  The  bottom  of  the  plug  holes  should 
slope  downwards,  so  as  to  carry  the  lead  into  them  at 
once,  as  well  as  to  give  the  stone  a more  secure  hold  of 
the  lead.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  running  in  lead 
that  there  is  no  moisture  in  the  holes,  whicn,  if  suddenly 
converted  into  steam,  might  cause  a serious  accident 

Dovetail  Bonding. — In  masonry  constructions  in- 
tended to  resist  the  shocks  of  waves,  in  addition  to  the 
methods  given  above,  the  stones  may  be  held  in  posi- 


RUBBLE  MASONRY 


241 


tion  by  being  dovetailed  one  into  the  other  (Fig.  72), 
as  was  done  by  Smeaton  at  the  Eddystone  lighthouse; 
but  good  cement  and  dowels  would  no  doubt  be 
equally  efficacious,  and  at  the  same  time  less  expensive. 

Tabling. — Stones  of  different  courses  may  also  be 
given  great  resistance  to  lateral  shocks  by  tabling  (Fig. 
73),  in  which  a flat  projection  cut  on  the  bed  of  one  stone 
fits  into  a corresponding  sinking  in  the  bed  of  the  one 
under  or  overlying  it.  This  method,  however,  is 
wasteful  both  of  material  and  labor. 


Securing  Bolts,  etc.,  in  Stonework. — Iron  bars  and 
bolts  are  generally  secured  in  stonework  by  being 
enlarged  or  jagged  at  the  ends — bolts  so  made  are 
called  rag-bolts — let  into  dovetailed  holes  in  the  stone, 
and  run  with  lead  (Fig.  74).  Brimstone  is  often  pre- 
ferred to  lead,  being  cheaper  and  less  liable  to  loosen 
by  expansion  and  contraction. 

Protecting  Cut  Stonework. — Any  projecting  or  carved 
stonework  in  a building  should  be  boxed  up  with 
rough  boarding,  after  it  has  been  set,  to  guard  against 
its  being  injured  by  the  carelessness  of  workmen,  or  by 
bricks,  etc.,  falling  from  the  scaffolding,  during  the 
progress  of  the  work.  The  treads  and  nosings  of  steps 
should  also  be  boarded  over  for  the  same  reason,  as 
well  as  to  protect  them  from  the  rough  traffic. 

All  the  cut  stonework  should  be  well  pointed  and 
cleaned  down  before  the  building  is  given  over  for  use. 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  74. 


244 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 

In  the  first  part  of  this  work,  designs  for  many  kinds 
of  arches  were  given  and  described,  and  the  rules 
given  are  in  many  cases  applicable  for  stonework;  so  I 
will  not  burden  this  part  with  many  examples,  as  those 
already  exhibited,  along  with  the  few  presented  here- 
with, will  be  ample  to  serve  the  purposes  of  most 
workmen,  and  before  proceeding  further,  it  may  not 
be  out  of  place  to  explain  a few  of  the  terms  that  are 
made  use  of  in  connection  with  the  construction  of 


The  face  of  the  arch  is  the  front , or  that  portion 
shown  in  elevation. 

The  under  surface  or  soffit  is  called  the  intrados , and 
the  outer  surface  the  extrados. 

The  voussoirs  are  the  separate  arch  blocks  composing 
the  arch,  the  central  one  being  the  keystone . 

The  springers  are  the  first  or  bottom  stones  in  the 
arch  on  either  side,  and  commence  with  the  curve  of 
the  arch. 

The  skewbacks  generally  apply  to  segmental  arches, 
and  are  the  stones  from  which  an  arch  springs#  and 
upon  which  the  first  arch  stones  are  laid. 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


245 


The  span  of  the  arch  is  the  extreme  width  between 
the  piers  or  opening;  and  the  springing  line  is  that 
which  connects  the  two  points  where  the  intrados 
meets  the  imposts  on  either  side. 

The  radius  is  the  distance  between  the  center  and 
the  curve  of  the  arch. 

The  highest  point  in  the  intrados  is  called  the 
crown , and  the  height  of  this  point  above  the  spring- 
ing is  termed  the  rise  of  the  arch. 

The  center  is  a point  or  points  from  which  the  arch 


is  struck;  and  lines  drawn  from  this  center  or  centers 
to  the  arch  are  radiating  joints,  and  are  also  called 
normals. 

All  joints  in  arches  should  be  radii  of  the  circle, 
circles,  or  elipses  forming  the  curve  of  the  arch,  and 
will  therefore  converge  to  the  center  or  centers  from 
which  these  are  struck. 

Fig.  75  shows  a segmental  arch,  in  which  the  above- 
mentioned  terms  are  illustrated. 

Fig.  76  is  a semicircular  arch,  AB  being  the  span  and 
CD  the  rise;  the  left-hand  half  has  the  ordinary  joints 
radiating  from  the  center  C , and  the  right-hand  half, 


246 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


with  rebated  or  step  joints,  also  radiating  from  the 
center  C.  This  last  is  a sound  and  effective  joint  where 
great  strength  is  required,  and  there  is  also  no  tend- 
ency to  sliding  of  the  voussoirs. 

Fig.  77  shows  a semi-oval  arch  approaching  in  form 
that  of  the  ellipse,  and  struck  with  three  centers. 
This  form  of  arch  has  a somewhat  crippled  appearance 
at  the  junction  of  the  small  and  large  curves,  and  is  on 
that  account  not  pleasing  to  the  eye 

1 


, It  may  be  here  observed  that  the  true  ellipse  is 
obtained  from  an  oblique  section  of  the  cone,  and  no 
portion  of  its  curve  is  any  part  of  a circle,  and  cannot, 
therefore,  be  drawn  by  the  compasses  or  from  centers. 

The  method  of  setting  out  and  drawing  the  joints 
requires  but  little  explanation,  AB  being  the  span, 
CE  the  rise,  and  DD  and  F the  centers,  from  which 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS  247 

the  curve  is  struck,  the  joints  converging  to  their  re- 
spective centers. 

The  left-hand  half  is  shown  with  square  bonding  on 
face,  and  the  right-hand  half  shows  line  of  extrados. 

Fig.  78  is  a Tudor  arch,  based  on  the  curve  of  the 
hyperbola. 

Let  AB  be  the  span  and  CD  the  rise  of  arch;  erect 
perpendicular  at  Ay  and  make  it  equal  in  height  to 
two-fifths  of  the  rise,  as  at  AC  and  CD , each  into  six 
equal  parts,  and  draw  lines  from  1 to  1,  2 to  2,  3 to  3, 
etc.,  and  the  line  drawn  through  the  intersections  of 


these  points  gives  the  curve  of  one  side  of  the  arch. 
The  other  side  is  obtained  similarly. 

A thin,  flexible  lath  is  generally  used  for  guidance  in 
drawing  an  easy  curve  through  the  points  of  inter- 
section. 

To  draw  the  arch  joints: 

At  any  point  in  the  curve,  say  at  E , drop  a perpen- 
dicular on  to  the  springing  line,  as  F,  make  BG  equal 
BF , and  from  G draw  line  to  Ey  which  is  tangent  to 
the  curve,  and  erect  the  perpendicular  EHy  giving  the 
arch  joint  required. 


248 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


The  other  joints  are  described  in  the  same  manner. 

Fig.  79  is  another  example  of  the  Tudor  arch  and  is 
a parabolic  curve. 

Let  AB  be  the  span  and  CD  the  rise,  erect  a perpen- 
dicular at  A and  make  it  equal  in  height  to  half  the 
rise,  and  proceed  as  in  previous  figure. 

To  draw  the  arch  joints: 

At  any  point  in  the  curve,  say  at  E}  draw  the  chord 
line  BDy  and  bisect  it  in  F . Join  FG , cutting  the 
curve  in  H,  and  from  the  point  E draw  line  EJ  parallel 
to  EFy  cutting  FG  in  J;  on  the  line  FG  make  HK 


equal  to  HJ , join  EK  and  draw  EL  perpendicular  to 
KE,  thus  giving  the  joint  line  required. 

The  other  joints  are  described  in  a similar  manner. 

Fig.  80  shows  a straight  or  flat  arch,  the  joints  radi- 
ating to  a common  center. 

On  the  right-hand  half  the  joints  are  not  continued 
through  to  soffit  or  top,  but  have  a small  portion 
squared  on,  thus  relieving  the  acute  angles  of  arch 
blocks,  which  are  otherwise  liable  to  fracture. 

The  springer  on  left  hand  has  additional  strength  in 
having  a square  seating  on  skewback. 

In  flat  arches  a camber  of  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  a 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


249 


foot  to  soffit  is  usually  given  to  allow  for  any  depres- 
sion or  settlement. 

Fig.  81  is  another  example  of  the  flat  arch;  the  left- 
hand  half  has  rebated  or  step  joints,  and  the  right- 
hand  half  has  joggle  joints.  All  these  joints  converge 
to  a common  center. 

Fig.  82.  — In 
this  figure  a lin- 
tel with  double 
joggle  vertical 
joint  is  given. 

Fig.  83  shows  a 
lintel  with  curved  1 Fig,  80. 

joggle  joints,  and 

is  an  example  not  often  met  with. 

The  form  of  joint  in  Figs.  81,  82  and  83  is  a little 
wasteful  of  material;  but  where  stone  is  plentiful  and 
in  small  blocks,  good  lintels  may  be  obtained.  Many 
examples  of  these  may  be  seen  in  our  modern  Gothic 
buildings. 

Fig.  84  illustrates  a window  or  door  head  with  quad- 
rant corners;  the  stretching-piece  or  key  is  in  one 

stone,  with  arch- 
joints resting  on 
the  skewbacks. 

Fig.  85  is  an- 
other form  of 
head,  the  square 
Fig.  81.  seating  in  each 

stone  giving  addi- 
tional strength,  and  the  joints  converge  to  common 
centers. 

Fig.  86  shows  chree  joints  used  in  landings. 

A is  a joggle  joint,  commonly  called  he  and  she- 


250 


STONEMASONS*  GUIDE 


Fig.  82. 


joggle.  A tongue  is  cut  slightly  tapering  on  one 
edge,  fitting  into  a corresponding  groove  worked  in 
the  other  edge.  Run  in  with  cement,  it  forms  a strong 
and  secure  joint. 

B is  a rebated  joint;  this  is  sometimes  undercut. 

C is  a bird’s-mouth  joint.  Grooves  are  roughly  cut 
in  on  the  edges  of  these  joints  opposite  each  other, 
and  the  cavities 
run  with  cement 
grout.  Slate  dow- 
els are  also  laid 
longitudinally  in 
the  joint  and  run 
with  cement. 

Fig  87  is  a horizontal  lintel  or  architrave  spanning 
an  opening,  with  an  apparent  vertical  joint,  but  con- 
cealing a secret  arch  joint.  This  is  used  chiefly  in 
colonnades,  porticoes,  etc.,  where  stones  of  a suffi- 
cient length  are  not  attainable,  and  sometimes  also  for 
convenience  of  hoisting  and  fixing. 

An  indent  is  formed  the  shape  of  the  reverse  of  a 
wedge  in  joint  of  abutment,  and  a wedge-shaped  pro- 
jection is  cut  in  key- 
stone, fitting  neatly 
into  the  indent. 

This  makes  a good 
and  secure  joint 
without  doweling  or 
cramping. 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  88  shows  sketch  of  weather  or  saddle  joint  in 
cornice.  This  joint  is  made  by  leaving  at  each  end  of 
the  stone  a ridge  or  roll,  the  formation  of  which  is 
generally  left  till  after  fixing.  This  roll  effectually 
prevents  the  water  running  through  the  joint.  The 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


251 


roll  is  not  usually  seen  from  the  front,  as  the  nose  of 
cornice  is  continued  straight  through  the  joint,  although 
it  is  also  in  some  cases  made  a feature  of. 

This  joint  is  used  chiefly  for  cornices  and  window 
sills  where  there  is  a large  projection. 

Fig.  89  exhibits 
a rebated  joint  in 
gable  coping. 

This  joint  is 
serviceable,  inas- 
much as  it  keeps 
the  water  out  of 
the  joint  and  the  wall  dry,  although  it  is  somewhat 
expensive. 

Fig.  90  is  an  example  of  various  bed  joints  in  stone 
spires,  being  respectively: 

A.  A horizontal  bed  joint. 

B.  A bed  joint  at  right  angles  to  batter 

C.  A rebated  or  stepped  bed  joint. 

D.  A joggle  or  tabled  joint. 


Fig.  85. 


The  bed  joints  of  the  stones  are  usually  cut  at  right 
angles  to  the  batter  or  face  of  the  spire,  as  at  B;  but 
horizontal  beds,  as  at  A,  are  supposed  not  to  involve 
so  much  thrust  at  the  base.  But  for  obviating  any 


252 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


outward  tendency,  a chain  or  rod-bond,  united  at  the 
angles  and  inserted  in  a cavity  at  the  base  of  the  spire, 
is  sometimes  used. 

The  two  bed  joints  C and  D are  both  a little  wasteful 
of  material,  but  for  stability  and  strength  these  are  by 

far  the  best  form 
of  joints. 

A word  may  be 
said  as  to  the 
thickness  of  the 
work;  this  will 
depend  chiefly  on  the  height  of  the  spire  and  the 
quality  of  the  stone.  From  ten  or  twelve  inches  at 


the  base,  diminishing  to  six  inches  or  even  less  at  the 
top,  may  be  generally  considered  sufficient. 

The  stonework  of  the  spire  of  Salisbury  Cathedral 
(the  spire,  reckoning  from  the  tower,  being  204  feet  in 
height)  is  two  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  gradually 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


253 


diminishes  in  thickness  to  about  twenty  feet  above  the 
tower,  where  it  is  reduced  to  nine  inches,  and  is  con- 
tinued at  that  thickness  to  the  capstone  at  the  summit. 

Fig.  91  shows  ashlar  in  courses  with  joggle  joints. 

This  is  a 
very  unusual 
form  of  joint, 
and  is  used,  no 
doubt,  more 
for  effect  than 
utility.  There 
is  a waste  of 
material  and 
labor,  and  a 
better  result 
may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  slate  cramps.  However, 
there  are  some  examples  of  it  in  modern  buildings. 

Fig.  92  is  a seating  to  sill,  with  a slate  or  copper 
dowel  to  prevent  lateral  motion. 
Mortises  are  cut  opposite  to 
each  other  in  the  two  beds, 
and  the  dowel  made  secure  by 
being  run  in  with  cement. 

The  dowel  is  a most  useful 
adjunct  in  good  and  secure 
fixing. 

Fig.  93,  A,  is  a metal  cramp 
for  securing  joints  together. 
A chase  or  groove  is  cut  in  the 
stone  of  a sufficient  width  and 
depth,  and  at  each  end  a mor- 
tise hole  is  cut  to  the  exact  size  of  inside  of  cramp,  so 
that  it  fits  tightly  and  requires  to  be  tapped  into  its 
place;  it  is  then  run  with  melted  brimstone  or  cement. 


254 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


The  use  of  iron  cramps  and  dowels  in  connection 
with  stone  is  generally  attended  with  some  danger,  on 
account  of  the  iron  rusting,  which  causes  an  increase 
in  size,  and  subsequent  fractures  and  discoloration  of 
the  stone.  But  if  the  iron  is  properly  protected  by 
galvanizing  or  japanning,  the 
risk  is  reduced  to  a minimum. 

The  best  metals  for  cramps, 
dowels,  etc.,  are  copper,  gun 
metal,  or  brass,  but  these  are 
expensive  and  are  therefore 
not  much  used. 

B is  an  example  of  a slate 
cramp  also  used  for  connect- 
ing joints  together,  and  is 
an  excellent  and  economical 
substitute  for  metal.  It  is 
made  dovetail  in  shape,  let 
in  flush  to  the  bed  of  the 
stone,  and  then  run  in  with 
cement. 

Fig.  94  shows  a plugged 
or  lead  doweled  joint.  This 
is  chiefly  used  in  copings, 
curbs,  strings,  arches,  etc., 
and  prevents  the  joint  work- 
ing loose  or  “drawing.” 

Two  holes,  dovetail  in 
shape,  are  sunk  in  the  joints  p|g  go 

opposite  each  other  and  a 

small  groove  is  cut  from  the  top  to  each  hole  and  run 
in  with  cement 

Slate  dowels  are  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  run  in  with  cement. 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS  255 

Fig.  95  shows  a lewis,  or  holding-clown  bolt,  let  in  a 
dovetail  hole  and  run  in  with  lead. 

The  openings  in  stone  of  small  span  arches  are 
generally  bridged  by  stone  lintels  in  one  piece,  or 
lintels  built  on  an  arched  construction  if  a number  of 


stones  are  used.  If  lintels  of  one  piece  are  employed 
in  walls  other  than  ashlar,  a rough  arch  is  generally 
built  above  to  relieve  the  lintel  of  the  weight  of  the 
superincumbent  wall,  as  shown  in  Figs.  96  to  98.  A 


second  method  of  relieving  the  lintel,  commonly 
adopted  in  snecked  rubble  work,  is  to  construct  a flat 
arch  of  three  stones  above  the  lintel,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
99  to  101;  the  center  stone  or  key  is  termed  the  save. 
In  bedding  the  save  stones  no  mortar  is  placed  on  the 


256 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


lintel,  but  the  stones  are  supported  in  their  position  by 
means  of  small  wood  wedges.  After  a sufficient  mass 
of  the  wall  has  been  built  to  tail  down  the  side  saves, 
the  wedges  are  removed.  In  finishing  the  wall,  the 
joint  between  the  saves  and  the  lintel  is  pointed  only; 
thus  no  weight  from  the  wall  above  is  brought  to  bear 
on  the  lintel. 

A large  number  of  stone  openings  are  formed  with 
flat  heads,  and  where  stones  of  sufficient  dimensions 
cannot  conveniently  be  obtained  in  one  piece,  some 
form  of  flat  arch  is  adopted. 


Figs.  102  to  105  show  a flat  arch,  with  secret  jog- 
gles. These  latter  are  worked  out  of  the  solid  stone, 
the  key  having  two  joggles;  the  springer  is  recessed 
only,  and  is  made  sufficiently  long  to  tail  well  into  the 
wall,  the  remaining  voussoirs  being  joggled  on  one 
bed-joint  and  recessed  on  the  other;  the  cornice  over 
window  in  this  example  is  supported  by  a console  or 
bracket. 

Figs.  106  to  108  show  the  construction  as  a flat  arch, 
the  bed-joints  stepped  to  prevent  any  voussoir  sliding 
on  its  bed-joint*  This  method  is  largely  used  for 
terra-cotta  work.  This  example  illustrates  an  archi- 
trave about  window,  supported  at  sides  by  a half  col- 
umn with  cushion  frieze  and  segmental  pediment 
above.  The  internal  jambs  are  splayed,  and  illustrate 


Fig.  ioi.  Fig.  99.  Fig.  97.  Fig.  96. 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


257 


Fig.  100  Fig.  98, 


258  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


259 


F’/dr? 

4.  tt!  of* 


5c*?  4?  htaintefr 

Fig.  106. 


I ■ 

Fig.  io8( 


Fig.  107. 


25o  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


/i  on 

Check  or  Reb&fe  for  cfoor 


Z5cj/e  — ■ t^==M  — 4 -t  I — -—a  I of  feet 

Figs,  iog*and  no. 


Fig.  116.  Fig  114.  Fig-  n3-  Fig.  in. 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


261 


Fig.  ns.  Fig.  112. 


262  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Figs.  117  and  118. 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


263 


264 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Fig.  123.  Fig.  124, 


Fig.  125. 


Fig.  126. 


the  use  of  sconcheons.  A coke  breeze  lintel  case  in  situ 
is  shown  over  the  internal  opening.  Figs.  109  and  no 
illustrate  a semicircular  opening  in  an  ashlar  wall,  the 
blocks  of  which  have  chamfered  joints.  In  these 
arches  it  is  necessary  to  extend  the  bed  joints  of  the 
voussoirs  till  they  intersect  the  courses  of  the  work; 
this  results  in  the  voussoirs  gradually  getting  longer  as 
they  approach  the  key.  Another  method  of  arranging 
voussoirs  is  shown  on  right  hand  of  Fig.  109.  In  this 
the  bed  joints  of  the  voussoirs  are  extended  to  meet 
the  horizontal  courses,  and  are  then  returned  a con- 
venient distance  along  the  horizontal  course;  this 
prevents  the  vertical  joints  of  the  voussoirs  coming  too 
close  together  near  the  springing. 


ARCHES  AND  JOINTS 


265 


Figs,  ill  to  1 13  show  a rectangular  opening,  spanned 
by  an  arch,  the  dressings  and  voussoirs  of  which 
project  beyond  the  wall  face  about  \y2  inches,  have 
chamfered  joints,  and  are  vermiculated  on  surface  to 
give  importance  to  the  opening;  this  form  of  opening 
is  commonly  adopted  in  the  basement  stories  of  clas- 
sical buildings. 

Figs.  1 14  to  1 16  show  a similar  opening,  the  voussoirs 
projecting  as  they  approach  the  key  and  the  joints  of 
the  masonry  being  rebated.  This  is  also  used  for 
basement  stories  of  classical  buildings. 

Stone  being  a granular  material,  anything  approach- 
ing an  acute  angle  is  liable  to  weather  badly;  therefore 
in  any  tracery  work,  having  several  bars  intersecting, 
a stone  must  be  arranged  to  contain  the  intersections 
and  a short  length  of  each  bar,  as  shown  in  Fig.  117, 
and  the  joints  should  be  (a)  at  right  angles  to  the 
directions  of  the  abutting  bars  if  straight,  or  (U)  in  the 
direction  of  a normal  to  any  adjacent  curved  bar. 
This  not  only  prevents  any  acute  angles  occurring,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  the  joints  were  made  along  the 
line  of  intersection  of  the  moulding,  but  also  ensures  a 
better  finish,  as  the  intersection  line  can  be  carved 
more  neatly  with  the  chisel,  and  is  more  lasting  than 
would  be  the  case  if  a mortar  joint  occurred  along  the 
above  line.  In  no  case,  either  in  tracery,  string 
courses,  or  other  moulding,  should  a joint  occur  at  any 
miter  line  (Fig.  1 1 8)0 

Figs.  119  to  122  illustrate  the  jointing  and  building 
up  of  a pointed  arch  with  plate  tracery  and  a rere-arch. 
Figs.  123  to  126,  illustrate  a pointed  arch  in  three 
orders,  with  inner  opening  raised  to  allow  door  to 
open. 

Tracery. — Wherever  the  moulded  members  of  the 


266 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


tracery  admit  of  it,  the  practice  should  be  followed  of 
designing  the  tracery  and  fitting  in  rebated  stone 
reveals,  similar  to  the  method  of  fixing  wood  frames 
in  reveals,  as  it  is  found  to  be  easier  to  fix  the  tracery 
after  the  opening  is  built. 

STONE  STAIRS  AND  STEPS 

These  consist  of  a number  of  blocks,  fixed  at  regular 
and  convenient  heights,  to  facilitate  transit  between 
planes  of  different  levels,  and  are  of  three  kinds:  (i) 
those  stairs  supported  at  both  extremities;  (2)  those 
fixed  at  one  end,  (the  other  end  being  left  free),  and 
known  as  hanging  steps;  (3)  steps  circular  in  plan. 
These  latter  are  divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  those 
with  a central  newel;  (2)  those  with  an  open  well. 

The  steps  may  be  in  one  of  two  forms,  either  rectan- 
gular or  spandrel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  127.  In  the  com- 
moner stairs  the  rectangular  blocks  are  used,  but  where 
a good  appearance  is  desired  or  to  gain  head-room, 
spandrel  steps  are  employed.  The  spandrel  steps  may 
be  finished  in  one  of  three  ways:  (1)  with  a plain  soffit, 
which  consists  in  finishing  the  soffit  in  one  plain  sur- 
face, as  shown  in  Fig.  127;  (2)  a broken  soffit  may  be 
employed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  127;  this  is  used  for  one 
of  three  reasons,  or  for  all  combined:  (a)  to  gain 
strength  at  the  back  of  the  tread;  ( b ) to  save  the 
expense  incurred  in  working  the  surface  of  each  step 
perfectly  level;  ( c ) to  obtain  effect;  (3)  having  the 
soffit  moulded. 

Each  step  may  simply  rest  upon  the  one  below  it, 
but  it  is  usual  for  the  upper  step  to  be  rebated  over 
the  back  of  the  one  below  to  prevent  sliding.  To 
avoid  acute  angles  at  this  point,  and  to  form  an  abut- 


STONE  STAIRS  AND  STEPS 


267 


ting  surface,  particularly  in  the  spandrel  steps,  a 
chamfer  is  taken  off  the  top  back  edge  of  the  lower 
step  at  right  angles  to  the  pitch  of  the  stairs,  the  upper 
step  having  a corresponding  sinking  to  fit.  This  is 
known  as  a back  joint,  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  127. 

Fixing  the  Steps.  — Stone  stairs  are  erected  in  one  of 
two  ways:  (1)  they  may  be  built  in  the  walls  as  the 
latter  are  built,  or  (2)  spaces  may  be  left  in  the  walls 


to  receive  the  ends  of  the  steps,  which  are  fitted  and 
fixed  when  the  wall  is  finished.  The  wall  should  be 
built  in  cement  mortar  for  at  least  12  inches  above  and 
below  the  line  of  the  stairs,  the  gaps  to  receive  the 
stairs  being  temporarily  filled  up  by  brickwork  bedded 
in  sand. 

The  ends  of  the  steps  should  be  pinned  in  the  walls 
with  tiles  or  slates  set  in  cement,  care  being  taken  that 
the  space  left  about  the  end  of  the  step  is  filled  up,  as 


268 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


far  as  possible,  with  solid  material,  leaving  no  thick 
mortar  joints  to  squeeze  out.  While  the  steps  are  set- 
ting, the  outer  or  free  end  should  be  supported  with 
wood  struts,  after  being  leveled,  which  should  remain 
until  the  cement  has  thoroughly  set. 


The  first  kind  of  stair,  viz.,  those  supported  at  both 
ends,  combine  convenience  with  the  greatest  strength. 
They  are  much  used  in  schools,  theaters,  and  other 
public  buildings.  They  are  usually  made  of  rectan- 
gular steps,  which  rest  six  inches  on  the  wall  at  either 
extremity. 


STONE  STAIRS  AND  STEPS 


269 


The  second  kind,  or  hanging  steps,  are  much  superior 
in  appearance  to  those  last  described.  They  derive 
their  chief  support  from  the  walls,  but  each  step 
receives  an  additional  amount  from  the  one  directly 
beneath  it.  These  are  used  for  all  conditions  of  stairs, 
from  the  secondary  staircases  in  dwelling-houses  to  the 
grand  staircases  in  public  buildings.  In  the  com- 
moner kinds,  rectangular  steps  are  used;  but  in  the 
superior,  spandrel  steps  are  always  employed. 

The  steps  maybe  plain  or  have  moulded  nosings; 
where  the  latter  are  employed,  the  moulding  should 
be  returned  about  the  free  end,  the  moulding  on  the 
latter  being  returned  and  stopped  directly  beneath  the 
riser  of  the  steps  above,  as  shown  in  Fig.  127. 

When  the  staircases  are  very  wide,  it  is  advisable  to 
support  the  steps  at  their  outer  ends  by  steel  joists  or 
cantilevers  at  intervals,  the  strength  of  stone  under 
cross  stress  not  being  very  great.  Fig.  127  shows  a 
landing  supported  by  a joist. 

The  first  of  the  third  class  of  stair,  the  circular 
newel,  is  used  for  turret  steps;  they  are  built  in  a 
circular  chamber.  The  steps  are  wedge-shaped,  their 
thin  end  being  worked  circular  to  a radius  of  about  3 
inches,  the  front  edge  of  each  step  being  tangent  to 
this  circle,  the  back  edge  of  the  step  being  a radial 
line.  The  steps  are  built  into  the  walls  of  the  cham- 
ber, at  their  wide  ends,  each  of  the  circular  ends  being 
arranged  to  fall  directly  over  the  one  beneath  it,  thus 
forming  a continuous  newel  up  the  center.  These  form 
a strong  stair,  but  are  rather  dangerous,  as  they  have 
to  be  steeply  pitched  to  gain  the  necessary  head-room. 

Secondly,  those  formed  with  an  open  well  are  built  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  hanging  stair,  of  which  they 
form  one  variety.  Stairs,  circular  and  elliptical  in 


270 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


plan,  are  often  built  between  two  walls,  as  in  the  first 
class  of  stair. 

Large  stone  landings  which  cannot  be  obtained  out 
of  one  piece  of  stone  are  joggled  at  their  joints,  and 
where  the  slabs  are  thin  and  are  likely  to  be  subjected 
to  heavy  traffic,  should  be  supported  by  steel  girders. 

The  balusters  in  stone  staircases  are  always  of  iron, 
which  is  better  for  fixing  purposes.  There  are  two 
methods  of  fixing  balusters:  (i)  fixing  them  into  the 
top,  suitable  for  standard  balusters,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
127;  (2)  fixing  them  into  the  side,  when  they  are 
termed  bracket  balusters,  as  shown  in  Fig  127.  Holes 
are  bored  in  the  steps  at  the  proper  intervals,  being 
slightly  undercut.  The  ends  of  the  balusters  are 
indented  before  being  inserted;  they  may  be  fixed  in 
with  lead,  Portland  cement,  sulphur,  and  sand,  or 
asphalt,  as  previously  described. 

Figs.  127  and  128  show  plan,  elevation,  and  details 
for  an  open  well  hanging  stair,  built  of  good  hard  stone. 
The  lower  flight  shows  handrail  supported  by  standard 
balusters,  the  upper  portion  with  bracket  balusters  to 
obtain  the  maximum  quantity  of  available  stair  space. 
The  method  of  setting  out  a scroll  and  curtail  step  is 
shown. 

Stone  Roof. — Fig.  129  shows  the  method  of  forming  a 
stone-covered  roof  over  a vaulted  chamber,  such  as  was 
frequently  used  during  medieval  times  in  military  and 
monumental  buildings.  It  is  formed  of  stone  flags 
bedded  on  rubble  filling  over  the  vault.  In  these  roofs 
the  flags  are  laid  in  two  systems,  the  lower  and  the 
upper;  in  the  first  the  flags  are  spaced  apart,  in  the 
second  the  flags  are  bedded  with  a lap  of  2 or  3 inches 
over  the  top  edges  of  the  flags  in  the  first  system. 
The  whole  upper  surface  has  a slight  fall  for  drainage. 


SI  ONE  STAIRS  AND  STEPS  271 


Fig.  129. 


272 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Mouldings. — Mouldings  may  be  classified  under  two 
heads,  Classic  and  Gothic.  The  Classic  are  those 
derived  from  those  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  Invariably  the  Roman  mouldings  are  found 
to  have  their  prototype  in  the  Grecian  examples,  the 
chief  difference  being  that  the  Greek  are  either  seg- 
ments of  some  of  the  conic  curves  or  are  struck  free- 
hand, while  the  Roman  curves  are  all  segments  of 
circles  (Figs.  130  to  138). 

There  are  nine  typical  examples,  as  follows: 

7.  Fillet . — This  is  a narrow,  flat  projection,  often 
used  to  divide  individual  mouldings  or  groups  of 
mouldings  in  any  composition;  it  is  similar  in  both 
Greek  and  Roman  work,  as  shown  in  Fig.  134. 

2.  Astragal  is  a small  semicircular  moulding,  as  shown, 
often  used  in  combinations  of  mouldings,  but  chiefly  to 
mark  the  division  between  the  shafts  and  caps  of  col- 
umns. This  member  is  similar  in  Greek  and  Roman. 

j.  Cavetto. — The  cavetto  is  a hollow  moulding,  con- 
sisting in  the  Greek  of  a quarter  of  an  ellipse  and  in 
the  Roman  of  a quadrant. 

4.  Ovolo. — This  moulding  in  the  Greek  consists  of  a 
segment  of  an  inclined  ellipse,  having  a fillet  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  and  forming  at  the  top  a quirk.  In 
Roman  work  it  is  a quarter  circle,  bounded  at  top  and 
bottom  by  a fillet. 

5.  Cyma  Recta. — This  is  a double  curve,  formed  in 
the  Greek  of  two  quarter  ellipses  whose  minor  axes  are 
in  the  same  straight  line  and  bounded  top  and  bottom 
by  a fillet.  The  Roman  example  is  similar,  but  consist- 
ing of  two  quarter  circles.  This  moulding  has  a con- 
cave portion  of  its  surface  above  the  convex,  and  is 
generally  used  as  a crowning  member. 

6 . CymaReversa , as  its  name  implies,  is  the  reverse  of 


STONE  STAIRS  AND  STEPS 


273 


Crowning 

Mouldings 


Cyma 

oRecta 


X' 

o- 


Cavetto 


Supporting 

Mouldings 


Cyma 
Reverse 


Connect  in 
Mouldm. 


\Ovo> 

g 

->sn 

\ 


Fillet 
Band  or  L/stel 


Astragal 


Base 
Mouldings 


Scotia 


Torus 


V 

Birds  Beak.  1 

Figs.  130  to  138, 


the  preceding  moulding, 
slightly  modified  in  the 
Greek  by  having  a quirk 
above,  between  the  same 
and  the  fillet,  and  the  hol- 
low portion  slightly  more 
concave.  The  Roman  is 
an  exact  reverse. 

7.  Scotia , — The  scotia  in 
the  case  of  the  Greek  is 
formed  of  an  inclined 
ellipse,  having  a fillet 
above  and  below.  The 
Roman  is  struck  from 
two  centers  on  a common 
radial  line. 

8.  Torus . — The  torus  is  a 
base  moulding,  the  Greek 
form  being  Ihe  reverse  of 
the  scotia.  Many  Greek 
examples  are,  however, 
similar  to  the  Roman, 
consisting  simply  of  a 
large  semicircle  with  a 
quirk  below  and  fillet 
above. 

p.  Bird's  Beak . — This 
moulding  only  occurs  in 
the  Greek  mouldings;  it 
consists  of  a quarter 
ellipse,  with  the  major 
axis  horizontal,  in  the 
lower  side  of  which 
a small  hollow  has 


274  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Types  of  Gothic  Mouldings, 
^igs.  139  to  165 


STONE  STAIRS  AND  STEPS 


275 


been  worked,  and  is  used  as  a supporting  moulding. 

In  the  designing  of  groups  of  mouldings  for  cornices, 
strings,  etc.,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  suit- 
ability of  the  forms  for  their  intended  position,  and  for 
this  purpose  they  may  be  divided  into  base  mould- 
ings, connecting  mouldings,  supporting  mouldings, 
and  crowning  mouldings.  The  base  mouldings  would 
include  such  mouldings  as  the  torus,  the  scotia  or  the 
inverted  cyma  recta,  and  any  combination  of  such 
mouldings  that  would  tend  to  broaden  the  base  and 
distribute  the  weight  of  the  mass  supported. 

Connecting. — These  include  the  fillet  and  the  astragal. 

Supporting. — The  supporting  mouldings  include  such 
members  as  the  ovolo,  bird’s  beak  and  the  cyma  reversa, 
mouldings  that  do  not  have  their  hollow  members  near 
their  upper  edge,  and  such  as  have  their  mass  in  a posi- 
tion to  strengthen  them,  and  are  fitted  to  act  as  cor- 
bels. These  mouldings  are  used  to  form  the  bed 
mouldings  or  lower  parts  of  combinations,  such  as 
cornices  which  are  divided  into  two  parts,  the  bed 
mouldings  and  the  crowning  mouldings. 

Crowning  Mouldings  are  those  mouldings  which  are 
not  expected  to  carry  anything  above,  such  as  the  cyma 
recta  and  the  cavetto,  the  top  members  of  which  are 
small  and  delicate. 

The  above  ideas  are  not  always  rigidly  adhered  to, 
and  successful  departure  from  them  is  often  made  with 
good  effect;  but  it  is  prudent  to  bear  these  principles 
in  mind  when  designing  any  groups,  for  if  too  widely 
departed  from,  confusion  ensues. 

Gothic  Mouldings. — Figs.  139  to  165  give  a selection 
of  the  mouldings  commonly  used  in  the  Gothic 
periods,  combinations  in  archivolts,  also  for  strings, 
wall  bases,  bases  and  capitals  of  columns. 


SPECIFICATION  CLAUSES 


MATERIALS 

STONE 

1.  The  whole  of  the  stone  to  be  of  the  best  description  of  its 
respective  kind,  and  to  be  free  from  sand  holes,  vents,  flaws,  and 
all  other  defects.  Should  it  be  disapproved  it  shall  be  removed 
at  once  from  the  site. 

2.  Any  stone  which  will  not  sustain  a load  under  test  of  2-in. 

cubes  equal  to lb.  per  sq.  in.  may  be  rejected  and  the 

contractor  is  to  furnish  to  the  architect,  if  demanded,  fair  cut 
cubes  taken  from  any  stone  challenged  by  the  architect,  and  the 
test  of  such  cubes  shall  be  considered  a test  for  all  the  stone  of 
a similar  character. 


3.  The stone  is  to  be  obtained  from  the 

quarry  of to  be  equal  in  all  respects  to 


sample  blocks  deposited  with  the  architect,  and  approved  by  him 
in  writing. 

Note. — This  clause  should  be  repeated  for  each  different  stone 
to  be  employed  in  the  building,  to  prevent  the  substitution  of  an 
inferior  material.  In  no  case  should  an  architect  specify  partic- 
ular stone  by  a general  trade  name.  In  the  case  of  sandstone 
for  sills,  hearths,  etc.,  the  following  clause  may  be  used. 

4.  The  stone  is  to  be  of  an  approved  quarry,  and  the  contractor 
is  to  deposit  samples  of  the  stone  he  proposes  using  with  the 
architect,  and  obtain  his  approval  in  writing  before  ordering  same. 

5.  All  cut  stone  work  of  every  description,  including  window 
and  door  sills,  caps,  corbels,  cornices,  steps,  railings,  brackets, 
balcony  floors,  chimney  caps,  copings,  fireplace  lintels  to  be  cut  as 
per  plans,  details,  etc.,  for  the  same,  and  to  be  delivered  at  the 
building  properly  fitted  and  with  all  necessary  lewising  and  drill- 
ing for  anchors  by  the  stonecutter. 

6.  Any  stone  found  at  completion  to  be  broken  or  defective  is 
to  be  cut  out  and  replaced  by  the  contractor. 

276 


SPECIFICATION  CLAUSES 


277 


MATERIALS  FOR  OTHER  TRADES 

FOR  “DRAINLAYER”  (HOUSE  DRAINAGE) 

7.  Provide  good  stone  covers  for  air  inlet  chambers,  2 ft.  9 in, 
by  2 ft.  9 in.  by  4 in.  thick,  finely  tooled  on  top  and  edges,  with 
rebated  perforation  for  cast-iron  hinged  grating  in  frame. 

8.  Provide  good  stone  covers  3 ft.  by  3 ft.  by  4 in.  thick,  for 
partially  covering  manholes,  as  shown  on  drawings,  with  circular 
perforation,  1 ft.  9 in.  in  diameter,  for  entrance. 

9.  Provide  stone  covers,  2 ft.  by  2 ft.  by  4 in.  thick,  for  tops 
of  lamphole  shaft,  terminating  in  roads  or  carriageways,  with  per- 
foration the  full  diameter  of  the  top  of  the  pipe.  The  covers  to 
be  finely  tooled  on  the  top  and  edges,  and  to  have  3 in.  block 
letters  “L.  H.”  cut  in  on  the  surface. 

10.  Provide  for  inspection  junctions  stone  covers,  18  in.  by 
18  in.  by  3 in.  thick,  finely  tooled  on  top  and  four  edges  to  have 
3-in.  block  letters  “I.  J.”  cut  in  on  the  surface. 

11.  Provide  for  the  cleaning  eyes  stone  covers,  18  in.  by  18  in. 
by  3 in.  thick,  finely  tooled  on  the  top  and  four  edges,  to  have 
3-in.  block  letters  “C.  E.”  cut  in  on  the  surface. 

FOR  “MECHANICAL  ENGINEER” 

12.  The  cover  for  engine  bed  to  be  of stone,  16  in. 

thick,  with  chamfered  edges,  holed  through  in  four  places  for  hold- 
ing down  bolts,  all  as  shown  on  drawings. 

13.  The  coping  for  walls  of  flywheel  race  to  be  9 in.  by  6 in. 
stone  boasted  coping. 

14.  The  flag  cover  for  boiler  sides  and  flues  to  be  3-in.  hard 
stone  flags  with  boasted  overhanging  edge. 

15.  The  coping  for  blow-off  pit  to  be  9 in.  by  6 in 

stone  boasted  coping  rebated  for  iron  plates. 

WORKMANSHIP— GENERAL  WORK 

16.  All  stone  work  to  be  set  in  best  manner,  every  stone  well 
bedded  with  complete  full  squeezed  out  joints  in  cement  mortar, 
and  all  work  in  contact  with  brick  to  be  plastered  with  similar 
cement  to  protect  from  stains,  and  all  the  brick  backing  of  same 
to  be  set  in  similar  cement  mortar. 

17.  All  stones  to  be  well  wetted  before  setting,  and  large  stones 
to  be  set  with  a derrick.  Rake  out  mortar  joints  when  setting. 


STONEMASONS1  GUIDE 


?y3 

18.  The  joints  between  cut  stone  blocks  in  all  columns  or  where- 
ever  any  weight  is  brought  on  any  cut  stone  work  to  be  made 
with  5-lb.  sheet  lead  worked  back  from  the  face  2 in.,  the  center 
being  cut  out  to  allow  space  for  settlement. 

19.  No  angle  miters  will  be  allowed  in  any  part  of  the  work. 

20.  All  window  sills  and  all  belts  forming  window  sills  to  be  in 
one  stone  each  if  desired  by  the  architect. 

21.  The  lines  of  all  mouldings,  curves,  angles  or  miters  to  be 
worked  to  their  true  and  proper  forms,  and  all  returns  of  miters 
of  mouldings,  washes  or  bevels  to  be  worked  on  and  out  of  the 
solid.  The  beds  and  joints  of  all  stonework  to  be  square  with 
the  face. 

22.  All  rebates  for  frames  to  be  cut  in  the  stone  joints  accord- 
ing to  plans  and  directions  of  the  architects.  All  the  windows 
or  other  finish  of  stone  to  be  in  size  and  form  as  shown  on  detail 
drawings,  moulded,  etc.,  according  to  the  details  of  each  part. 

23.  All  stonework  to  be  jointed  as  shown  or  directed. 

24.  Fix  in  all  joints,  where  shown  on  details  or  as  directed, 
copper  dowels  (provided  by  “coppersmith”),  tailing  equally  into 
each  stone,  and  run  with  oil  cement.  No  iron  dowels,  galvanized 
or  otherwise,  will  be  allowed,  and  if  brought  on  the  job  shall  be 
returned  immediately. 

25.  Carefully  perform  all  cuttings  and  dowelings  of  holes  for 
iron  railings,  crest ings,  bars,  anchors,  etc.  Also  all  cutting  for  all 
galvanized  iron,  tin  and  lead  flashing  to  the  several  roofs  and 
wherever  else  required. 

26.  Chases  to  be  left  in  all  walls  where  shown  on  drawings,  or 
wherever  required  for  the  running  of  steam,  gas,  and  water  pipes, 
or  for  any  other  purposes  which  may  be  found  to  be  necessary 
after  the  work  has  been  built. 

Cut  chases  and  break  out  holes  for  steam,  water  and  gas  pipes, 
or  for  any  other  purpose. 

27.  The  front  entrance  to  have  ..in.  by  ..in stone 

rubbed  top  and  front,  and  back-jointed  step  with  sunk  and 
moulded  front,  and  with  short  returned  sunk  and  moulded 
ends. 

The  tradesmen’s  entrance  to  have  ..in.  by  ..in.  good  free 
stone,  tooled  top  and  front,  and  back-jointed  step. 

All  steps  to  be  kept  up  2 in.  above  floor  to  allow  for  thickness 
of  mat. 

The  doorways  to 


to  have.  .in.  sound,  free  stone, 


SPECIFICATION  CLAUSES  279 

rubbed,  and  back-jointed  both  edges,  thresholds  the  full  widths 
of  the  walls. 

All  steps  and  thresholds  to  have  mortises  for  dowels  of  door 
frames. 

28.  To  be  of stone  14  in.  by  6 in.,  wrought,  sunk, 

weathered,  throated,  and  rubbed  on  all  exposed  parts,  including 
the  soffit  of  the  projection,  grooved  for  metal  tongues,  and  set  in 
mortar. 

All  to  have  proper  stools  for  jambs. 

29.  Finish  the  parapet  next with  14  in.  by  6 in. 

suitable  stone  rubbed  saddle-backed,  double-moulded  (to  detail), 
and  double-throated  coping,  with  kneelers,  springers,  bondersP 
etc.,  of  the  sizes  shown. 

Finish  the  parapet  over with  13  in.  by  3 in.  suit- 

able stone,  tooled  and  weathered  coping  throated  on  both  edges. 

All  copings  to  have  lead-plugged  joints. 

Note. — Iron  should  not  in  any  case  be  used  as  cramps.  Should 
cramps  be  preferred  to  lead  plugs,  copper  or  gun  metal  should  be 
used. 

30.  Carefully  bed  and  dowel  all  cornices  in  cement  mortar. 

31.  The  heads  to  windows  where  shown  to  be  stone  to  be  of 

stone  stop,  moulded  to  detail  of  the  sizes  shown, 

and  6 in.  longer  each  end  than  the  width  of  the  opening. 

32.  The  staircase  from  ground  floor  to  basement  to  have.  .in. 
by  . .in.  tooled  all  round  threads,  and  ..in.  by  ..in.  tooled  all 
round  risers. 

The  staircase  from  ground  floor  to to  have  . .in.  by 

..in.  rubbed  all  round stone  spandril  steps,  splay 

rebated  and  splay  back  jointed  with  sunk  and  moulded  fronts 
with  solid  square  wall  ends.  The  other  ends  to  be  returned  and 
moulded  to  match  fronts. 

The  bottom  step  to  be  solid  with  curtailed  end  as  of  the  size 
shown. 

The  landings  to  be.  .in.  thick,  sunk  and  moulded  on  free  edges 
to  match  steps  with  cement-plugged  joints.  Fill  in  between 
landing  and  steps  below  same  with  . . in.  by  . . in.  splay  rebate 
and  splay  back-jointed  filling-in  piece  with  fine  rubbed  joint. 

All  ends  of  steps  and  edges  of  landings  next  walls  to  be  built 
in  at  least  4$  in. 

33.  Properly  cut  and  pin,  or  build  in  the  walls,  all  ends  of  steps, 
edges  of  landings,  etc.,  requiring  it. 


280 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


34.  Put  4 in.  rough stone  corbels  under  all  over- 

hanging chimney  breasts. 

35.  Turn  relieving  arches  of  such  span  as  may  be  directed  in 
walls  over  weak  spots  in  the  foundations  or  over  openings. 

36.  Put  under  ends  of  rolled  joists  up  to  . .in.  by  . .in.,  14  in. 
by  9 in.  by  3 in.,  under  ends  of  larger  rolled  joists  14  in.  by  14  in. 
by  4 in.,  and  under  ends  of  riveted  girders  18  in.  by  14  in.  by  6 in. 

stone  templates,  finely  tooled  for  iron,  and  with 

tooled  edges  where  exposed. 

37.  The  columns  and  stanchions  to  have  21  in.  by  21  in.  by  6 in. 

....stone  bases  finely  tooled  for  iron  and  mortised  for 

lugs. 

Note. — The  columns  and  stanchions  to  be  slightly  wedged  up 
with  steel  wedges,  and  run  in  with  neat  cement. 

38.  Chimney  stacks  to  be  worked  according  to  detail  drawings 
and  properly  cramped  as  directed.  The  top  stone  of  chimneys 
where  possible  to  be  in  one  stone  with  holes  cut  through  for 
flues. 

39.  All  rolled  joists  and  girders  carrying  walls  to  have  3 in. 
stone  tooled  covers  with  coped  edges  bedded  in  cement. 

All  riveted  girders  to  have  bed  of  cement  on  top  of  same  to 
cover  rivet  heads. 

40.  Put  3 in.  rough  stone  flags  bedded  and  jointed  in  cement 
as  cover  to  dry  area. 

41.  The  curb  to  area  outside to  be  9 in.  by  6 in. 

stone  tooled  all  round  with  cement-plugged  joints. 

The  curb  to  area  outside to  be  similar,  but  rebated 

for  pavement  lights. 

42.  The  kitchen  and  scullery  fireplaces  to  have  2^-in.  stone 
rubbed  front  and  back  hearths. 

The  remaining  fireplaces  where  stone  hearths  are  shown  to 
have  2 in stone  rubbed  front  and  back  hearths. 

All  to  be  12  in.  longer  than  the  width  of  opening  and  18  in. 
projection,  except  to  kitchen,  which  is  to  be  24  in.  projection. 

43.  The  kitchen  chimneypiece  to  have  7$  in  by  2 in 


stone  rubbed  jambs,  and  9 in.  by  2 in stone  mantel 

and  shelf.  The  shelf  to  project  6 in each  end  beyond 


mantel,  with  rounded  corners,  and  to  be  supported  on  12  in.  by 
6 in.  by  2 in.  rubbed  and  moulded  stone  corbels  cut  and  pinned 
in  wall. 

44.  Provide  and  fix stone  rubbed  and  dished  sink  in 


SPECIFICATION  CLAUSES 


281 


scullery  3 ft.  by  1 ft.  8 in.  by  5 in.,  all  in  clear,  the  bottom  to  fall 
and  holed  for  grating. 

Note. — Glazed  stoneware  sinks  are  generally  preferable  to 
stone,  except  in  special  cases. 

45.  Provide  and  fix  as  shown  a 4 in.  chamfered  and  holed  top 

to  copper,  to  be  in  one  slab  of  rubbed stone. 

46.  Cut  all  grooves  and  rebates  as  may  be  required  for  glazing, 
etc.,  up  the  jambs  and  mullions,  and  in  the  tracery,  and  well 
point  upon  both  sides  with  coarse  putty. 

47.  Form  rebates  for  iron  casement  frames,  and  provide  plugs 
and  holes  in  stone  to  each. 

48.  Mortise  steps,  sills,  etc.,  for  tenons  of  door  frame  shoes, 
and  run  in  the  tenons  with  lead. 

49.  Each  bell  pull  at  entrances  to  be  let  into  a stone  9 in.  by  9 in. 
by  9 in.,  set  in  cement  and  sand,  sunk  for  pull,  and  mortised  for 
wire. 

50.  Cut  proper  mortises  in  the  stone  for  the  ends  of  all  saddle 
bars,  stanchions,  etc.,  and  run  in  with  cement;  properly  let  in 
and  run  with  lead  all  double  fangs  of  hinges,  staples,  catches, 
sockets,  etc.,  as  may  be  required. 

51.  All  works  intended  for  carving  to  be  prepared  by  the  mason, 
and  all  boasting  necessary  to  be  done  by  him,  great  care  being 
taken  to  leave  sufficient  stuff  to  give  the  carver  plenty  of  scope. 
The  carving  to  be  done  by  professional  carvers  approved  of  by 
the  architects,  and  according  to  detail  drawings  to  be  furnished. 
Carving  to  be  done  either  on  the  ground  or  in  position  after  the 
building  is  up,  as  directed  by  the  architects. 

52.  Provide  and  allow  for  selecting  a specially  jointed  founda- 
tion stone  and  for  cutting  inscription  on  same  of  about 

letters  2 in.  high,  and  cutting  a cavity  in  same,  and  provide  an 
air-tight  solid  copper  box  to  hold  papers,  etc.,  to  be  deposited  in 
same,  and  allow  for  extra  labor  and  materials  in  setting  stone 
with  usual  ceremonies.  Also  provide  and  allow  for  clearing  up 
the  parts  of  the  building  near  the  stone  on  the  day  appointed  by 
the  building  owner,  and  making  the  premises  clear  and  safe  and 
available  for  the  usual  assembly  and  allow  for  interruption  of 
such  work  as  necessary. 

53.  Thoroughly  clean  down  all  work  at  completion  and  clean 
out  and  point  all  joints  in  cement,  tinted  to  match  stone,  well 
tucked  into  joints  and  finish  with  a neat  flat  surface. 

54.  Lime  whiten  all  exterior  wall  surfaces,  mouldings,  etc. 


282 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


SPECIAL  CLAUSES  FOR  A CHURCH 

LABORERS 

55.  The  whole  of  the  stone  to  be  of  the  best  description  of  its 
respective  kind,  to  the  architect’s  approval;  to  be  free  from  sand 
holes,  vents  and  all  other  defects;  to  be  worked  to  lie  on  its 
natural  bed  when  set,  and  to  be  bedded  and  jointed,  except 
where  otherwise  described,  in  mortar  (or  putty),  with  wide  (or 
fine)  joints,  which  are  intended  to  show. 

All  the  stone  is  to  be  worked  on  the  site,  and  particular  care  is 
to  be  taken  to  preserve  all  the  joints  of  the  stonework  from  the 
irregular  appearance  which  is  caused  by  the  arrises  being  broken 
before  the  stones  are  set.  No  work  thus  injured  will  be  allowed  to 
be  used,  and  no  patching  will  be  allowed.  The  stonework  to  be 
so  truly  worked  as  not  to  require  any  cleaning  off  beyond  washing. 

56.  All  the  dressings  (unless  otherwise  described)  to  be  finished 
off  with  a fine  drag  (or  a chiselled  face  or  rubbed)  in  a manner  to 
be  approved  by  the  architect,  and  to  be  bonded  and  fixed  in  the 
most  substantial  manner. 

57.  The  vertical  joints  of  sills,  parapets,  cornices,  and  all  joints 
in  tracery  of  windows,  in  vaulting  ribs  and  chimney  caps,  are  to 
have  double  cement  plugs  and  mortises  for  same,  or  double  V- 
grooved  joints  run  with  cement  as  may  be  necessary. 

58.  The  mullions,  copings,  jamb  shafts,  pinnacles,  and  such 
are  to  have  1 in.  or  1J  in  cube  slate  dowels  (as  required)  to  every 
stone  in  the  bed,  run  with  cement,  with  proper  mortises  for  the 
same 


DRESSINGS 

59.  The  external  dressings  of  windows  and  doorways,  also  the 
copings,  strings,  gable  crosses,  weather  courses,  weatherings,  etc., 

etc.,  are  to  be  executed  in All  external  angles  of 

dressed  stonework  to  be  worked  in  the  solid. 

60.  Provide  and  fix  hinge  and  lock  stones  as  shown  on  the 
drawings  and  as  required.  (It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  make 
these  stones  of  a harder  material  than  the  dressings.) 

61.  The  internal  dressings,  unless  otherwise  described,  are  to  be 

of finished  with  finely-rubbed  faces. 

62.  All  internal  angles  of  dressed  stonework  to  be  worked  in 
the  solid. 

63.  The  detached  piers  and  springers  over  same  are  to  be  exe- 


SPECIFICATION  CLAUSES 


283 


cuted  in stone.  Internal  detached  shafts  to  be  of 

.stone  (or  marble,  etc.,  etc.)  as  required,  the 

whole  to  have  circular,  finely-dragged  faces,  or  to  be  chiseled  (or 
rubbed),  the  top  and  bottom  beds  to  have  mortises  run  with 
cement,  and  the  intermediate  joints  to  have  light  copper  cramps 
as  may  be  directed. 

ASHLAR 

64.  The  internal  facing  throughout  to  be  of stone  ash- 
lar. The  external  facing  is  to  be  of stone  ashlar.  The 

courses  are  to  be  of  various  heights  (averaging  6 in.  on  the  bed) 
from  4 in.  to  10  in.,  and  to  line  generally  with  the  beds  of  dressed 
stonework.  They  must  also  be  properly  bedded  and  bonded  into 
the  body  of  the  walls.  Each  stone  must  be  set  in  mortar,  cut, 
and  properly  fitted  up  to  the  dressings,  arches,  etc.,  and  be  fin- 
ished with  a finely-dragged  or  chiseled  face. 

VAULTING 

65.  The  springers  of  the  vaulting  must  be  worked  on  the  solid 
as  shown  on  detail  drawings;  they  and  the  wall  ribs  are  to  be  built 
into  the  walls  as  the  work  proceeds,  but  those  portions  of  the 
groin  ribs  which  are  fully  developed  on  the  springers,  as  well  as 
all  the  filling  in,  will  have  to  be  set  after  the  roof  is  up  and  covered 
in.  The  contractor  is  to  allow  for  any  extra  scaffolding,  labor, 
etc.,  that  may  consequently  be  required. 

66.  The  cells  of  vaulting  are  to  be  filled  in  with stone 

4 in.  thick  in  narrow  courses  built  in  mortar,  the  soffits  to  be 
slightly  arched  or  cambered,  and  the  surface  to  be  finely  dragged 
or  chiseled  to  match  the  internal  ashlaring,  etc.;  it  is  to  be 
cleaned  off  and  the  joints  struck  as  the  work  proceeds,  to  be  pro- 
perly cut  up  to  the  stone  ribs,  and  to  have  all  necessary  centering 
or  laths  that  may  be  required  for  the  support  of  the  cells  whilst 
building. 

SUNDRIES 

67.  The  gable  crosses  to  be  of stone  worked  according  to 

the  drawings,  and  fixed  with  3 in.  by  1 in.  by  1 in.  slate  dowels 
run  with  cement. 

68.  The  masonry  in  all  towers  to  be  built  with  special  care  with 
large  flat  stones,  carefully  bedded,  each  stone  to  break  joint  over 

the  center  of  the  stone  below.  Not  more  than stones  to 

be  placed  in  the  width  of  the  wall  set  in  mortar  and  grouted  as 
described  for  the  other  portions  of  the  work.  All  joints  to  be 


284 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


true  and  close,  filling  in  the  walls  with  spalls  will  not  be  allowed. 

69.  The  tops  of  the  turret  and  chimney  stack  are  to  be  built 
as  shown  on  the  drawings,  the  top  and  cap  stones  of  turrets  and 
the  top  stone  of  chimney  to  be  solid  and  perforated  for  the  flues 
and  finial  rods  as  required. 

70.  A weather  course  to  be  fixed  round  chimney  stack,  also  on 

all  with  solid  springers,  apex,  and  bond  stones 

about  4 ft.  apart.  (Some  prefer  to  work  these  entirely  on  the 
solid.) 

71.  The  chimney-piece  in  vestry  to  be  formed  in 

stone,  as  shown  by  the  detail  drawing,  and  to  be  properly  dow- 
eled together  and  tied  with  copper  cramps  into  the  walls.  The 
fender  to  be  of  stone,  3|  by  3£  in.,  rubbed  and  moulded,  with 
dowels  and  cement  plugs  as  required,  and  to  have  circular  corners 
as  shown  by  the  drawings. 

72.  The  seats  in  sedilia,  the  bottom  of  piscina,  etc.,  to  be  also 

of stone,  all  of  the  widths  and  thicknesses  shown. 

FLOORS  AND  STEPS 

73.  The  altar  stone  to  be  a 6 in.  rubbed slab  in  one 

stone,  and  of  the  size  of  the  altar  as  shown. 

74.  The  steps  within  the  chancel  and  at  the  entrances  thereto 

are  to  be  of  the  best  selected stone,  rubbed  top  and 

front  and  back-jointed;  to  be  in  long  lengths  with  fine  joints  and 
double  cement  plugs  in  same,  and  of  the  sizes  shown;  all  to  be 
bedded  hollow  on  brickwork.  Similar  steps  to  be  fixed 

75.  The  heating  vault  and.  to  have  2|  in.  tooled 

paving  in  mortar. 

CARVING 

76.  Provide  models  to  the  approbation  of  the  architect,  made 
by  an  artist,  for  the  whole  of  the  carving;  the  whole  to  be  made 
to  a scale  of  3 in.  to  1 ft. 

77.  Perform  in  an  artistic  manner  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
architect,  the  carving  of  the  pendants,  battlements,  foliated 
arches,  finials,  crests,  small  domes,  and  of  every  other  part  of 
the  building. 

Note. — It  is  more  often  the  custom  in  the  best  work  to  insert 
a provision  for  the  carving  of  a building,  such  sum  to  include  cost 
of  making  necessary  models. 

78.  Clean  down  the  masonry  work  and  generally  leave  the 


SPECIFICATION  CLAUSES 


285 


Whole  perfect  and  complete,  omitting  no  material  or  workman- 
ship either  described  or  implied  by  the  drawings  and  this  specifi- 
cation, or  that  is  necessary  to  render  the  whole  complete  in  every 
respect. 

Note. — Many  architects  will  not  allow  any  cleaning  down. 
There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  custom  is  injurious  to  some 
stones,  as  it  removes  the  natural  case-hardened  weather-face. 

SPECIAL  CLAUSES  FOR  A BUILDING  IN  A STONE  DIS- 
TRICT 

79.  The  stone  for  wallings,  footings,  and  dressings  generally 

to  be  obtained  from quarry.  (If  the  quarry  belongs 

to  the  building  owner,  insert  the  following: — No  royalty  will  be 
charged,  but  the  contractor  will  have  to  quarry  the  stone  and 
convey  it  to  the  building.  The  quarry  to  be  left  in  good  order  at 
completion.)  Stone  for  sills,  mullions,  transoms,  string  courses, 
cornices,  copings,  weatherings,  and  other  exposed  positions  to  be 

obtained  from  the quarry  belonging  to  Mr 

The  whole  of  the  stone  to  be  set  so  as  to  lie  on  its  natural  quarry 
bed. 

80.  Build  the  footings  with  large  flat-bedded  rubble  walling 
stones,  specially  selected  for  the  purpose,  in  mortar  thoroughly 
bonded,  bedded  perfectly  level,  filled  in  solidly,  and  flushed  up 
with  mortar. 

Properly  lay  up  the  cellar  walls  with  good  hard  flat  build- 
ing stone in.  thick,  firm  built  and  well  bonded  with  a 

thorough  stone  at  least  in  every  yard  super.,  laid  in  clean  lime 
and  cement  mortar  in  parts  of  one  of  cement  and  two  of  lime, 
laid  by  and  full  to  a line  on  both  faces  and  flush  and  point  at 
completion.  Lay  down  in  like  manner  substantial  foundations 
under  all  chimneys,  piers,  and  exterior  steps,  and  all  clear  of 
frost.  Leave  all  openings  in  walls  for  drain,  gas  and  water  pipes, 
as  directed  or  as  shown  on  plans. 

81.  The  walls  to  be  carried  up  in  roughly-chiseled  ashlar  in 
mortar,  to  be  thoroughly  bonded  and  packed,  and  well  flushed  up 
with  mortar  and  small  stones. 

82.  The  inside  face  to  be  carried  up  true  and  even  in  brick- 
work to  receive  plaster  (4J  in.  lining  properly  bonded  with  head- 
ers into  wall). 

83.  The  outside  surface  to  be  executed  in  roughly-chiseled 


286 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ashlar  (the  local  rubble  stone  in  horizontal  random  courses  to 
average  7 in.  on  bed  with  one  bond  stone  at  least  to  every  yd. 
super.,  the  beds  to  be  roughly  hammer  dressed,  and  the  surface 
to  be  chopped  to  remove  any  great  irregularity  as  shall  be  directed, 
the  courses  to  vary  from  (3  in.)  to  (7  in.)  high,  and  in  stones 
between  (14  in.)  and  (24  in.)  long  with  occasional  large  square 
stone).  The  pointing  to  be  done  as  the  work  is  carried  up  by 
passing  the  point  of  the  trowel  over  the  joint,  so  that  the  mortar 
shall  in  no  case  project  over  any  portion  of  the  stones,  and  the 
joints  to  be  slightly  weathered. 

84.  The  quoins  to  be  got  out  of  the  best  local  weather  stone, 
to  be  long  each  way  on  the  bed,  and  well  bonded  into  rubble 
walling,  the  angles  to  be  truly  formed,  and  the  surface  to  be  axed 
with  irregular  upright  and  diagonal  strokes  as  shall  be  approved, 
or,  if  of  rubble,  “the  quoins  to  be  executed  in  selected  large  stones.” 

85.  Provide  for  covering  the  tops  of  walls  with  asphalted  felt 
if  they  should  be  uncovered  during  frost  or  very  wet  weather. 


Plates  I,  II,  III,  IV.  STAIRCASES. 


The  tread  of  a step  is  the  upper  or  horizontal  surface, 
and  the  riser  is  the  front  vertical  face  or  upright  portion 
of  the  step.  The  soffit  is  the  under  surface,  and  in  span- 
drel steps  is  inclined  from  the  horizontal.  The  nosing  is 
the  front  edge  of  the  tread  and  riser,  and  is  either  square 
or  moulded. 

Flyers  are  straight  steps  with  parallel  edges. 

Winders  are  steps  with  converging  edges  on  tread, 
and  parallel  edges  on  riser,  and  generally  a twisting  sur- 
face on  soffit. 

For  general  purposes,  the  tread  of  a step  should  not  be 
more  than  twelve  inches,  nor  less  than  nine  inches,  and 
the  rise  of  a step  should  not  be  more  than  seven  inches, 
nor  less  than  five  and  a half  inches. 

The  proportion  usually  adopted,  is  any  two  numbers 
between  the  above  sizes  which,  multiplied  together,  pro- 
duce sixty-six : namely,  a twelve-inch  tread  by  a five  and 
a half-inch  rise  equals  sixty-six,  or  n X 6 = 66,  and 
again  n1/*  X SH  — 66.  This,  however,  may  be  slight- 
ly modified— as,  for  instance,  a ten-inch  tread  and  a six 
and  a half-inch  rise  equals  sixty-five — but  the  rule  may 
be  relied  upon  as  safe  in  working  to. 

A staircase  easy  of  ascent,  and  in  other  respects  desir- 
able, is  one  in  which  all  the  steps  are  flyers,  and  having 
quarter  or  half-space  landings. 

Long  straight  flights  with  more  than  twelve  steps  be- 
fore reaching  a landing  should  be  avoided. 

Where  there  is  a deficiency  of  room  or  space,  winders 
287 


288 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


have  to  be  introduced ; and  these,  if  properly  arranged, 
need  not  interfere  with  the  ease  of  the  ascent. 

In  setting  out,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  moulds, 
the  first  point  to  be  considered  (the  plan  being  satisfac- 
tory) is  the  width  of  the  tread  and  the  rise  of  the  steps; 
these  are  best  obtained  by  measuring  the  length  and 
width  of  the  well-hole,  and  the  height  from  floor  to  floor, 
from  the  actual  work  if  practicable,  and  then  dividing 
out  the  dimensions  thus  obtained  into  the  number  of 
steps  on  deal  rods,  or  it  may  be  also  found  by  calcula- 
tion. The  height  rod  is  called  the  storey  rod,  and  this 
and  the  other  rods  are  afterwards  used  in  the  fixing  of 
the  stairs. 

Fig.  i.  To  set  out  a Spandrel  Step  Mould. 

Draw  a line  F B , and  line  B C at  right  angles  to  same, 
and  on  F B set  off  A B the  width  of  tread,  and  on  B C 
the  height  of  rise.  From  A to  C draw  a diagonal  line 
cutting  tread  and  rise  at  their  extremities,  and  draw 
parallel  to  it  line  E D for  soffit,  of  a sufficient  depth  pro- 
portioned to  the  strength  of  the  stone,  which  in  this  ex- 
ample is  put  at  two  inches.  For  the  back  rebate,  set  off 
from  A to  F one  and  a quarter  inches,  and  from  F draw 
line  square  with  soffit  to  E;  for  the  front  rebate  draw  line 
from  C to  G square  with  the  rise  and  set  off  one  and  a 
quarter  inches,  and  from  G draw  line  square  with  soffit 
to  D,  thus  forming  a birdsmouth,  the  exact  reverse  of  the 
back  rebate. 

Allow  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  for  joint,  which  cut  off 
from  the  mould  as  shown  by  double  line  at  C G D. 

A moulding  or  astragal  nosing  is  added  on  to  front  of 
riser  when  necessary. 

Fig.  2.  Shows  plan  of  a stair  generally  considered  to 
be  a good  type. 


PLATE  I. 


289 


STAIRS 


FIG. 2 


SCALE  TO  FIQ  . 9. 


2go 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


It  starts  with  two  curtail  steps  and  four  flyers  reaching 
a quarter-space  landing,  then  eleven  more  flyers,  reach- 
ing a half-space  landing,  and  five  flyers  to  the  top  land- 
ing. 

The  setting  out  of  this  requires  no  explanation. 

Fig.  3.  Shows  part  plan  of  stair  with  winders. 

Fig.  4.  Is  a development  of  the  plan  of  stair  shown  in 

Fig-  3- 

The  stairs  should  be  set  out  to  full  size,  and  on  a large 
board  or  platform,  and  it  may  be  here  noted  that  the  riser 
lines  only  are  essential  to  the  setting  out,  both  on  plan 
and  section,  the  moulded  nosing  being  seldom  shown. 

Begin  with  the  plan  and  draw  the  wall  lines  C D E, 
and  lines  F G H for  the  quoin  ends,  draw  centre  line 
A B , and  on  this  line  from  No.  13  to  20  divide  out  the 
winders  equal  to  the  width  of  tread  of  the  flyers,  dividing 
the  quoin  ends  into  the  same  number  of  parts. 

These  need  not  be  equal  in  size,  and  the  better  result 
will  be  obtained  if  the  ends  are  a little  graduated  from 
the  flyers  to  the  angle  winder  each  way,  in  order  to  get 
a good  tread  and  an  easy  line  to  the  soffit  and  handrail. 

The  winders  will  not  radiate  from  the  center  of  quad- 
rant O,  but  at  a distance  outside  of  it,  as  shown. 

Another  method  is  to  draw  the  development  of  quoin 
end,  and  adjust  the  ends  of  steps  upon  this,  until  a good 
line  for  soffit  is  obtained,  the  riser  lines  are  then  trans- 
ferred to  plan. 

To  set  up  the  development  for  quoin  ends,  draw 
parallel  lines  on  board  for  the  rise  as  given  by  storey  rod, 
and  begin  at  bottom  by  drawing  No.  10  step,  and  then 
No.  11  and  No.  12  steps.  No.  13  is  the  first  winder.  Set 
off  the  exact  size  from  riser  to  riser  on  plan  and  draw  on 
board,  proceeding  in  the  same  manner  with  No.  14.  Nos. 


•""V 7 7 7 1 7 


Q 

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Q 

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i/) 


PLATE  II. 


291 


<70*  A3VOX9 


WELL. HOLE 


2g  2 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


15, 1 6,  and  17  are  segmental  on  plan.  Set  off  the  developed 
size  of  each  respectively,  following  on  with  Nos.  18,  19, 
&c.,  till  each  is  drawn,  so  that  the  distance  from  riser  of 
No.  10  to  riser  of  landing  No.  21  equals  the  distance  of 
quoin  ends  on  plan,  when  unfolded  or  stretched  out  in  a 
straight  line. 

For  the  development  of  the  wall  end,  set  out  similarly 
to  the  preceding  by  taking  the  distance  of  each  winder 
on  the  wall  line  of  plan,  and  setting  up  the  same  on 
board.  No.  16  is  taken  across  the  corner  and  not  into 
the  angle;  with  this  exception  the  wall  end  is  stretched 
out  in  a straight  line. 

The  soffit  has  now  to  be  considered.  Begin  by  draw- 
ing an  easy  curved  line,  taking  up  with  soffit  of  flyer  No. 
11  and  finishing  with  soffit  of  landing  No.  21,  keeping  the 
rebates  about  the  same  size  as  the  ordinary  steps;  this 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  do,  but  the  size  of  rebate  is 
not  of  so  much  importance  as  that  of  having  a good  soffit 
line.  The  rebates  to  winders  are  in  every  instance  of  the 
same  square  section  as  the  flyers,  but  in  some  cases  may 
be  less  in  depth  or  greater,  according  as  the  soffit  line  cuts 
through  them.  A small  reverse  should  be  made  from 
the  development  for  guidance  in  working  each. 

For  drawing  the  soffit  a flexible  lath  or  rod  is  used,  by 
means  of  which  an  easy  and  graceful  line  is  obtained. 

Fig.  5.  The  bed  moulds  for  winders  are  made  of  deal 
laths  about  two  inches  wide  by  half  an  inch  thick,  nailed 
together  as  shown  in  sketch.  The  mould  is  scribed  on 
the  tread  of  the  stone  to  be  worked,  allowance  being  made 
for  the  back  rebate,  and  also  for  the  tailing  into  wall, 
both  of  these  dimensions  being  figured  on  the  mould. 

Fig.  6.  Shows  a well-hole  mould,  usually  made  of  sheet 
zinc,  used  for  guidance  in  drawing  the  segmental  quoin 
ends. 


294 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Fig.  7.  Shows  sketch  of  soffit  of  winder. 

The  working  of  the  winder  is  plain  straightforward 
work  with  the  exception  of  the  soffit,  which  is  a twisted 
or  warped  surface. 

Cut  in  draft  as  A B on  quoin  end  and  sink  draft  to 
templet  at  wall  end  as  C D.  Point  off  superfluous  waste 
and  divide  drafts  A B on  quoin  end,  and  CD  at  wall 
end,  into  four  equal  parts,  as  1,  2,  3 ; work  straight  drafts 
from  1 to  1,  2 to  2,  and  3 to  3 ; these  are  again  to  be  sub- 
divided and  straight  drafts  worked  to  corresponding 
divisions  at  each  end,  until  the  whole  soffit  is  finished  to 
a true  winding  surface. 

The  square  seating  at  wall  end  is  left  on  for  a good  fix- 
ing into  wall. 

A winding  stair  with  moulded  nosing  is  worked  in 
precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  foregoing,  the  only 
difference  being  in  the  nosing,  the  projection  of  which 
is  an  addition  to  the  plain  riser,  the  riser  lines,  rebates 
and  soffits  being  in  every  case  identical. 

A point  which  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  setting  out 
stairs,  is  to  see  that  sufficient  head  room  is  allowed ; this 
should  not  be  less  than  six  feet  six  inches  from  nose  of 
steps  to  soffit  of  flight  over, — that  is  to  say,  the  soffit 
line  of  flight  over  should  not  cut  below  an  arc  described 
by  a radius  of  six  feet  six  inches,  taken  from  the  nose 
of  either  of  the  steps  beneath. 

Fig.  8.  Shows  the  plan  of  a winding  staircase  in  a cir- 
cular well,  supported  by  a solid  newel  in  the  center,  the 
newel  being  worked  on  each  step. 

Fig.  9.  Is  a sectional  elevation  of  the  winding  stair- 
case shown  in  Fig.  8. 

It  may  be  known  to  most  of  our  readers,  that  if  a 
piece  of  paper  of  the  shape  of  a right-angled  triangle  be 


PLATE  IV. 


295 


STAIRS 


FIG. II 


FIC  . 13 


SCALE,  IQ  f I G II  & 12 


296 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


wound  round  a cylinder,  the  hypotenuse  (or  long  side  of 
the  triangle)  will  generate  a curve  winding  round  the 
cylinder  in  the  form  of  a spiral.  This  curve  is  called  the 
helix. 

The  soffit  line  of  the  stairs  winding  round  the  well, 
and  line  winding  round  the  newel,  is  the  helix,  and  the 
soffit  contained  between  these  lines  forms  a true  helical 
plane ; the  development  therefore  of  each  end  of  the  step 
is  a straight  line  on  the  soffit,  so  that  no  setting  up  on 
section  is  required.  The  plan  must  be  laid  down  on  the 
board  full  size,  the  treads  being  divided  out  equally,  and 
each  step  being  similar  and  alike,  one  mould  will  do  for 
the  whole.  The  starting  step  is  not  generally  worked  on 
the  soffit,  but  is  kept  solid. 

The  hatched  line  on  Fig.  8 shows  the  extreme  size  of 
the  bed  mould  of  each  winder. 

The  method  of  working  the  soffits  will  be  similar  to  that 
described  in  Fig.  7. 

Fig.  10.  Shows  a sketch  of  one  of  the  winders,  the 
newel  forming  a portion  of  each. 

Fig.  11.  Shows  part  plan  of  a circular  stair,  having 
an  open  newel  or  central  well ; this  stair,  like  the  preced- 
ing Figs.  8 and  9,  is  an  example  of  the  helix,  the  soffit 
being  a helical  plane. 

Fig.  12.  Is  development  of  part  of  the  circular  stair  of 
Fig.  11,  showing  quoin  and  wall  end,  the  lines  of  soffit  to 
each  being  straight. 

The  student  who  has  worked  out  the  previous  examples 
of  stairs  will  not,  it  is  presumed,  require  any  further 
instruction  on  the  setting  out  and  working. 

Figs.  13  and  14  are  elevations  of  quoin  ends,  and  sec- 
tions of  two  forms  of  bracketed  stairs  suitable  for  good 
buildings,  such  as  hotels,  mansions,  clubs,  &c. 


STAIRCASES 


297 

Fig.  15.  Is  a section  of  solid  square  steps,  suitable  for 
warehouses,  workshops,  &c.,  where  great  strength  is  re- 
quired. 

Fig.  16.  Shows  sections  of  a simple  form  of  steps,  con- 
sisting of  treads  and  risers  in  separate  pieces,  worked  out 
of  two  inch  or  two  and  a half-inch  stuff.  These  are 
chiefly  used  for  back  stairs,  area  steps,  &c.,  and  are  inex- 
pensive in  construction. 

Fig.  17.  Shows  method  of  sawing  spandrel  steps,  one 
out  of  the  other,  so  as  to  economize  stone. 

The  treads  of  winders  are  also  sawn  in  a similar  man- 


ner. 


Plates  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII.  CIRCULAR  WORK 
(RAMP  AND  TWIST). 


Fig.  i.  Shows  plan  of  part  of  a Terrace  Stair,  with 
Balustrade  following  the  inclination  or  rake  of  steps. 
The  balustrade  being  circular  on  plan,  it  necessitates  a 
certain  amount  of  twist  in  its  working. 

[The  method  here  adopted  is  not,  perhaps,  the  most 
economical  as  regards  material ; but  it  is  comprehensible, 
and  more  true  in  form  when  worked  than  with  a com- 
plication of  moulds  and  bevels,  and  the  material  is  more 
than  saved  in  the  labor  of  working.] 

Begin  by  laying  down  the  plan  full  size  on  a large 
board  or  platform,  carefully  dividing  the  space  for  balus- 
ters equally. 

Fig.  2.  Set  up  the  elevation  to  developed  line  of  convex 
or  outside  face  of  plinth — that  is  to  say,  the  line  ABC 
on  plan  (Fig.  i),  when  stretched  out  or  unfolded  in  a 
straight  line,  is  equal  to  or  of  the  same  length  as  the  hori- 
zontal line  ABC.  The  line  of  inclination  will  be  a helical 
line,  as  the  steps  are  of  equal  tread  and  rise ; therefore  the 
plinth  starts  with  a straight  line  parallel  to  the  nose  of 
steps. 

On  elevation  set  off  the  joints  (convenient  to  the  size  of 
stone)  for  the  plinth  and  capping  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of  rake. 

Fig.  3.  Set  up  the  elevation  to  developed  line  of  con- 
cave or  inside  face  of  plinth,  and  set  off  the  joints  which 
are  to  coincide  with  the  outside  joints.  To  obtain  these, 
transfer  the  points  from  the  elevation  (Fig.  2)  of  out- 

298 


PLATE  V. 


299 


BALUSTRADE 


w..f I I 3 1 f — n 

fCA4C  ro  rto.  /.  2 fc  5, 


FIG.  II 


300 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


side  face  to  the  plan  (Fig.  i),  and  produce  the  joint  lines 
through  to  inside  face  by  the  lines  radiating  from  centre, 
and  re-transfer  to  the  inside  elevation. 

The  method  of  drawing  the  section  of  steps  is  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines  and  the  notation,  this  being  similar  to  the 
plan. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  making  of  the 
moulds  and  the  working  of  the  stones  a plinth  block  and 
length  of  capping  are  taken,  as  shown  by  hatched  lines  on 
Figs.  2 and  3.  The  details  are  given  to  a larger  scale. 

To  work  the  Plinth  Block. 

The  block  of  stone  required  to  work  the  plinth  block 
will  be  rectangular  in  shape,  of  the  extreme  length  of  the 
bed  mould;  and  the  width  will  be  equal  to  the  distance 
across  the  chord  line,  and  the  height  will  be  that  of  the 
face  moulds. 

Fig.  4.  A Shows  bed  mould  of  the  plinth. 

B Shows  face  mould  of  convex  or  outside  face. 

C Shows  face  mould  of  concave  or  inside  face. 

Begin  by  working  the  bottom  bed  to  a true  plane ; then 
work  the  top  bed  parallel  to  it  as  a surface  of  operation, 
and  taken  to  the  height  of  the  face  mould.  Scribe  the 
bed  mould  in  on  each  bed,  care  being  taken  to  bone  the 
points  through  so  that  the  moulds  are  perfectly  out  of 
twist;  proceed  to  work  the  concave  and  convex  surfaces. 
For  guidance  in  working  this  to  a true  form  radiating 
lines  are  marked  on  the  beds  taken  from  the  mould,  and 
the  straight  edge  is  applied  on  the  face  to  drafts  coincid- 
ing with  these.  At  this  stage  the  stone  is  a true  segment 
of  a hollow  cylinder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Now  apply  face 
mould  B (Fig.  4),  to  convex  face,  and  face  mould  C 


RAMP  Sc  TWIST 


301 


PLATE  VI. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  OUTSIDE  ELEVATION 


3°2 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


(Fig.  4),  to  concave  face,  and  scribe  them  in  to  their 
respective  shapes;  work  the  joints  through,  and  scribe  in 
the  section  mould  H (Fig.  11). 

The  top  bed,  or  surface  of  operation,  is  now  done  with, 
except  at  the  high  corner  which  forms  the  bed  of  the 
baluster  seating.  Point  off  the  superfluous  waste  down 
to  the  top  of  the  other  baluster  seatings,  and  clean 
through  the  beds  and  sides  of  these  from  outside  to  in- 
side face,  as  shown  by  sketch  Fig.  6. 

Next  gauge  the  distance  taken  from  the  bed  or  section 
mould  of  seating  of  baluster  to  the  convex  and  concave 
faces,  and  work  the  same,  thus  completing  the  baluster 
plinths. 

For  guidance  in  working  the  ogee  raking  mouldings,  a 
bending  strip  or  thin  lath,  and  one  or  two  small  reverses 
cut  to  section  of  moulding,  will  be  all  that  is  required,  and 
the  stone  is  finished  as  in  sketch  (Fig.  7). 

Each  of  the  other  plinth  stones  are  worked  similarly. 


To  work  the  Length  of  Capping . 

Fig.  8.  D Shows  bed  mould  of  the  capping. 

E Shows  face  mould  of  convex  face. 

F Shows  face  mould  of  concave  face. 

This  stone  is  worked  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
the  plinth — namely,  by  working  first  a segment  of  a cylin- 
der to  the  shape  of  the  bed  mould  and  to  the  height  of  the 
face  mould,  as  in  sketch  (Fig.  5).  Then  apply  face 
moulds  E and  F respectively  to  the  convex  and  concave 
faces,  and  scribe  them  in.  Work  off  the  joints,  and  scribe 
in  section  mould  / (Fig.  11)  ; next  point  off  the  super- 
fluous waste,  and  work  the  baluster  seatings  as  before  de- 
scribed. Trammel  lines  for  raking  mouldings  and  work 


BALUSTRADE 


PLATE  VII.  303 


development  of  inside  elevation 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


them  through,  assisted  by  a bending  strip  and  reverses, 
and  finish  by  working  off  the  saddle-back  weathering. 

The  small  seating  or  plinth  of  baluster  is  worked  on 
the  plinth  and  the  capping,  in  order  that  a level  bed  may 
be  obtained  in  fixing  the  baluster. 

Each  of  the  other  lengths  of  capping  are  worked  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  foregoing. 

Fig.  io.  Is  sketch  of  length  of  capping  finished ; this 
is  slightly  tilted  up,  so  as  to  show  the  baluster  plinths. 

Fig.  ii.  Shows  section  of  the  plinth,  capping,  and 
baluster. 


PLATE  VIII. 


FIG  . 4 FIG,  8 


Plates  IX,  X,  XI.  CYLINDRICAL  VAULTING. 


To  obtain  the  Profiles  or  Curvature  of  a Groin. 

Fig.  i.  Let  A B C D be  a rectangular  plan,  its  vault 
to  be  intersected  by  two  semi-cylinders. 

Bisect  the  line  H J , and  with  F as  a centre,  describe 
the  semi-circle  G H J (the  given  section),  which  divide 
• into  any  number  of  equal  parts  in  this  example  12,  and 
project  ordinates  12345,  &c.,  through  the  springing  line 
H F J on  to  the  diagonal  line  A E D as  1'  2r  3'  4'  5',  &c. 
Erect  ordinates  perpendicular  to  the  diagonal,  and  make 
them  equal  in  height  to  those  of  semi-circle  G H J,  and 
through  the  points  of  intersection  draw  the  semi-ellipse, 
which  is  the  curve  of  the  groin. 

The  outer  profile  K L M is  obtained  in  the  same  man- 
ner, namely,  by  projecting  ordinates  from  the  diagonal, 
and  making  them  of  equal  height  to  those  of  semi-circle, 
and  tracing  semi-elliptic  curve  through  the  points  of  inter- 
section. 

These  profiles  may  also  be  obtained  by  means  of  an 
elliptic  trammel,  taking  A D and  K L respectively  as  the 
major  axes,  and  E N and  M O as  the  minor  axes,  and 
drawing  semi-ellipses  by  a continuous  curve. 

To  obtain  the  Profiles  for  the  Annular  Groin. 

Fig.  2.  Let  A B C D be  the  given  plan. 

Produce  A C and  B D until  they  meet  in  the  point  X, 
which  is  the  centre  of  the  radiating  vault ; bisect  the  line 
A C and  B D at  E and  G}  and  describe  the  two  semi- 
circles A J C and  B D H the  given  section;  divide  the 

306 


PLATE  IX, 


307 


FIG  . I 


FIC.2 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


308 

diameter  of  either  semi-circle  as  A C into  any  number  of 
equal  parts — in  this  example  10 — the  last  division  from  1 
to  A and  9 to  C may  be  again  divided  as  at  0,  and  erect 
ordinates  as  0 1 2 3 4 5,  &c.,  cutting  the  semi-circle  at 
O'  i'  2'  3'  4'  5',  &c. ; at  the  centre  X,  with  radius  0 1 2 
345,  &c.,  on  the  diameter  A C , describe  concentric  arcs 
to  the  diameter  B D.  Divide  the  segmental  line  A 5 B 
into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  as  the  diameter  A C, 
as  O 1 2 3 4 5,  &c.,  and  from  these  points  draw  radiating 
lines  from  centre  X , intersecting  the  above  arcs  at  Oa  ia 
2a  3 a 4a  &c and  through  the  points  of  intersection 
draw  the  curve,  giving  the  plan  of  groins  A F D and 
C F B. 

To  describe  the  outer  and  inner  profiles,  develop  seg- 
mental line  A 5 B as  right  line  a b , and  C f D as  right  line 
c d,  and  transfer  the  divisions  O 12345,  &c. ; erect  ordi- 
nates as  O'  i'  2'  3'  4'  5',  &c.,  equal  in  height  to  those  of 
the  semi-circle  A J C and  through  the  points  O'  V 2 ' 3'  4' 
5',  &c.,  draw  the  curve  which  gives  the  true  sections. 

To  find  the  profile  on  the  diagonals  A F D and  C F B, 
develop  line  A F D as  right  line  a F d,  and  transfer 
divisions  Oaia2a3a4a5a,  &c.,  on  the  same,  erect  ordinates, 
and  make  them  equal  in  height  to  those  of  the  semi-circle 
A J C ; through  the  points  of  intersection  draw  the  curve, 
giving  the  true  section  at  the  mitre  of  groins,  when  bent 
or  worked,  so  as  to  stand  on  the  curve  A F D on  the  plan. 

To  construct  a Rectangular  Vault,  intersected  by 
two  semi-cylinders,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles, 
and  of  equal  height,  each  course  of  Stone  being  level  and 
parallel  to  the  axes  of  the  Cylinders. 

Fig.  3.  Let  A B C D be  the  springing  of  the  groins, 
A E D and  CEB  plan  of  the  groins  or  intersection  of 
cylindric  surfaces,  F H G is  a section  of  the  soffit  or  in- 


PLATE  X, 


309 


VAULTING  — CYLINDRICAL 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


3™ 

trados  whose  profile  is  a semi-circle,  and  I K J a section 
of  the  outside  or  extrados,  both  of  which  are  concentric 
semi-circles.  The  form  of  this  section  determines  the 
shape  of  the  groin  and  outer  profile.  L M N and  0 P Q 
are  sections  respectively  of  the  intrados  and  extrados 
of  the  semi-elliptic  profile,  the  curves  of  which  are  found 
by  the  method  described  in  Fig.  i. 

To  obtain  the  joints,  divide  the  semi-circle  I J K into 
any  unequal  number  of  equal  parts  (convenient  to  the  size 
of  the  stones),  in  this  example  13,  and  draw  the  arch 
points  radiating  from  the  centre  R as  a'  V c' d'  e ' f',  &c. 
From  the  joints  on  the  soffit,  as  a b c d e f,  &c.,  project 
lines  on  to  the  plan,  cutting  the  diagonal  line  A E—C  E 
at  a b c d e f,  &c. ; and,  from  these  points  of  intersection, 
project  lines  on  to  the  semi-ellipse  L M N for  intrados, 
and  project  points  from  the  extrados  I J , to  the  extrados 
0 P}  and  draw  the  joint  lines  through,  which  gives  the 
direction  and  position  of  joints. 

The  vertical  cross  joints  in  vault  may  be  drawn  at  pleas- 
ure, care  being  taken  to  “bond”  by  breaking  joint,  but  the 
angle  quoins  of  the  groin  must  be  treated  differently,  and 
for  this- reason:  the  extrados  of  the  arch  is  set  out  on  the 
plan  as  shown  on  the  right  hand  half,  and,  by  noting  the 
joints  3 4 5 6 at  T U V W,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
vertical  joints  of  the  groins  are  set  out  to  the  mitre,  which 
governs  the  size  on  the  soffit.  If  the  stones  were  set  out 
less  than  this  there  would  not  be  so  good  a bed,  as  this 
size  should  be  the  minimum. 

The  dotted  diagonal  lines  on  the  half  plan  of  the  in- 
trados show  the  mitre  on  the  extrados,  and  the  dotted 
diagonal  lines  on  the  half  plan  of  the  extrados  show  the 
mitre  of  the  groin  on  the  intrados.  Although  the  ex- 
trados is  here  shown  apparently  as  a finished  face,  yet  in 


PLATE  XI 


3ir 


VAULTING  — C YL/N  DR/ CAL 

FIG  10 


FI  G O 


312 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


practice  it  is  not  so,  as  it  is  generally  left  rough,  and 
stepped  out  as  a seating  for  concrete. 

The  stones  which  present  any  difficulty  in  the  working 
in  this  form  of  vault  are  the  angular  groins,  and  these  are 
the  weakest  part  of  the  vault,  on  account  of  each  stone 
acting  to  some  extent  as  a corbel,  and  one  corbel  standing 
upon  another,  as  indicated  by  the  sketch  (Fig.  io). 
Therefore  care  must  be  taken  in  working  them  true  to 
shape  and  form. 

The  stones  in  other  portion  of  the  vault  may  be  worked 
as  those  in  a right  arch. 

The  easiest  way  of  working  either  of  the  groin  stones 
is  to  take  a block  cubical  in  form,  and  containing  it,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  6 B ; and,  although  in  stones  Nos.  3,  4 and 
5,  there  is  little  waste  attached  to  this  method,  yet  it  gives 
the  best  results,  and  is  more  correct  in  shape  when  worked 
than  by  using  bevels.  The  danger  of  using  bevels  is  in  the 
application  of  them,  that  is  to  say,  should  there  be  the 
least  deviation  from  the  actual  position  in  applying  the 
bevel,  the  stone  would  not  be  true.  This  would  not  be  of 
so  much  consequence  were  it  an  isolated  block,  but  where 
it  is  surrounded  by  others,  and  forming  a cylindric  sur- 
face, it  is  of  importance. 

Fig.  4.  Shows  a quarter  plan  and  profiles  of  the  vault 
to  a larger  scale,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  more  clearly 
the  working  of  the  groins ; in  actual  work  this  is  all  that 
is  necessary  to  set  out,  as  the  set  of  moulds  of  one  groin 
will  work  the  three  others  if  “handed,”  that  is  worked  in 
pairs. 

Fig.  5.  Is  the  springing  stone.  No.  1 is  the  bed 
mould,  1 A and  1 B the  joint  moulds. 

Begin  by  working  the  bottom  bed,  this  being  horizon- 
tal, and  scribe  on  the  bed  mould ; next  work  the  two  ver- 


CYLINDRICAL  VAULTING 


3i3 


tical  faces  or  joints  c a d b,  and  scribe  in  the  joint  moulds 
1 A and  1 B,  then  the  top  splay  joint  c d,  and  lastly  the 
curved  soffit,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  mitre  true. 

Fig.  5A.  Shows  a sketch  of  this  stone  finished;  the 
working  of  this  differs  very  little  from  that  of  an  ordi- 
nary arch  stone. 

Fig.  6.  Is  the  second  stone.  No.  2 is  the  bed  mould, 
and  2 A and  2 B the  joint  moulds. 

Work  the  two  beds  parallel  to  each  other,  and  of  the 
extreme  height  of  the  joint  mould  from  a to  d,  as  sur- 
faces of  operation ; labor  need  not  be  thrown  away  on 
these  beds,  as  they  may  be  roughly  chiselled  over  and 
at  the  same  time  true : the  mason  should  know  just  where 
to  put  the  work  that  is  necessary,  in  some  cases,  perhaps, 
a couple  or  three  straight  drafts  being  all  that  is  required. 
This  done,  scribe  in  the  bed  mould  No.  1 on  the  bottom 
and  top  bed.  Work  the  vertical  joints  c a d b,  scribing 
in  the  joint  moulds  2 A and  2 B . The  position  of  these 
moulds  is  given  by  the  circumscribing  rectangle,  coincid- 
ing with  the  lines  on  the  bed  mould ; next  work  the  splay 
beds,  and  then  the  curved  soffit  guided  by  a convex  temp- 
let, keeping  the  mitre  also  true. 

Fig.  6A.  Shows  a sketch  of  the  stone  when  finished. 

Fig.  6B.  Shows  a sketch  of  the  same  contained  with- 
in the  circumscribing  prism. 

Fig.  7.  Is  the  third  stone.  This  is  worked  precisely 
as  the  last  named  in  Fig.  6. 

Fig.  7A.  Shows  a sketch  of  this  stone  when  finished. 

Fig.  8.  Is  the  keystone  No.  7. 

In  working  this  stone  commence  on  the  soffit  plane, 
the  points  a b and  e f and  points  opposite  these  being  in 
this  plane,  which  may  be  taken  as  a surface  of  operation. 
Scribe  in  the  bed  mould  No.  7;  the  dotted  lines  c d and 


314 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


g h show  the  finished  arris  on  the  soffit.  Work  the  two 
joints  a b and  the  two  joints  e f at  right  angles  to  the 
plane,  and  scribe  in  the  joint  moulds  7 A and  7 B,  then 
the  splay  joints  a c — f g , &c.,  and  lastly  the  concave  sur- 
faces c d and  g h.  The  mitres  of  intersection  being  here 
very  obtuse  must  be  carefully  worked. 

Fig.  9.  Shows  a sketch  of  one  of  the  ordinary  arch 
stones  between  the  groins,  which  is  worked  similar  to 
that  of  a right  arch. 

Fig.  10.  Shows  a sketch  of  the  vault. 


Plates  XII,  XIII,  XIV,  XV.  DOMES  AND 
PENDENTIVES. 


The  Dome  may  be  generally  described  as  a convex  roof 
or  vault,  covering  a circular  elliptical  or  polygonal  area. 

The  Pendentives  are  the  corbellings  resting  on  the 
internal  angles  of  piers,  and  support  the  dome. 

Fig.  iA.  If  a hemisphere  or  other  portion  of  a sphere, 
aba,  be  intersected  by  vertical  planes,  a d c>  equidistant 
from  its  centre,  the  angular  or  spandril  portion,  e e,  be- 
tween the  boundaries  of  the  planes  are  pendentives. 

Fig.  i.  Shows  half  plan  of  square  area,  covered  by 
dome  and  supported  by  pendentives. 

Fig.  2.  Shows  sectional  elevation  of  the  dome  and 
pendentives,  taken  through  the  centre  line  E F on  plan. 

For  the  making  of  the  moulds,  and  working  of  this 
vault,  a quarter  plan  only  is  required  to  be  set  out  full 
size;  but  in  order  to  show  it  more  clearly  the  half  is 
here  given. 

Begin  by  setting  out  on  the  plan  (Fig.  i)  the  rectangle 
A B E F,  the  line  E F being  the  centre  line,  and  the 
line  C D being  the  transverse  centre  line.  The  semi- 
circle E D F is  the  half  of  inscribed  circle,  forming  wall 
line  of  cornice  and  dome. 

Set  out  the  archivolt  on  impost  caps  at  A and  B as 
shown  by  hatched  lines,  which  gives  the  span  or  opening 
of  arches,  and  project  on  to  springing  line  of  section 
(Fig.  2). 

At  c as  centre,  with  c g or  c h as  radius,  describe  semi- 

315 


3i6 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


circle  g j h for  soffit,  and  semi-circles  concentric  to  this 
for  lines  of  mouldings  forming  archivolt.  The  arch  at 
crown  j k must  equal  in  height  the  width  at  springing 
A Gy  Fig.  i,  so  that  the  corbelling  of  pendentives  start 
exactly  in  the  angles  at  A and  B on  springing  line  at 
top  of  impost  cap. 

Divide  the  arch  into  any  number  of  equal  parts — in 
this  example  7 — and  draw  joints  radiating  from  centre 
c as  ifl  2a  3a  &c. ; at  extremities  of  joints  as  1 b 2 b 
draw  horizontal  lines  for  beds  (these  are  better  if  worked 
in  conical  or  splay  beds,  but  as  it  takes  more  material 
they  are  generally  horizontal  as  shown  at  Fig.  3).  Pro- 
ject 1 by  2 b on  to  wall  line  of  arch  on  plan,  fig.  1,  and 
with  C as  centre  describe  arcs  1 B 2 By  giving  line  of 
curvature  of  horizontal  joints  in  pendative.  The  ver- 
tical joints  may  be  drawn  in  at  will,  but  are  here  shown 
as  at  1 By  2 By  3 B. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  arch  is  panelled  on  soffit, 
and  is  shown  on  section  by  a chamfer,  the  detail  being 
too  small  to  show  a moulding. 

Set  up  the  section  of  cornice  No.  6 and  project  nosing 
on  to  plan  (Fig.  1)  as  6 A.  For  vertical  joints  divide 
cornice  into  8 parts,  this  being  a convenient  number  for 
stones  in  the  dome,  and  also  breaking  joint  with  those 
in  pendentives. 

Draw  in  the  joints  which  radiate  from  the  centre  C 
(Fig.  1)  at  6 A,  6 By  and  project  on  to  the  section 
(Fig.  2).  < 

The  wall  line  of  the  cornice,  e f,  Fig.  2,  is  the  spring- 1 
ing  line  of  dome,  and  equals  the  width  E C F on  centre 
line  of  plan  (Fig.  1). 

On  the  line  e f set  up  the  curvature  of  dome,  which  is 
a semi-ellipse,  and  may  be  struck  with  the  trammel  or 


PLATE  XII 


3i7 


DOME 


and  PENDENTIVES 

FIG  . 2 


3i8 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


the  curve  may  be  traced  through  points  in  the  intersec- 
tion of  lines. 

For  the  joints  divide  the  dome  into  any  convenient 
number — in  this  example  9 — as  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  10,  &c.,  and 
draw  radiating  lines  perpendicular  to  the  tangent  of  the 
curve,  as  at  7a  8a  ga  &c. ; see  construction  as 
shown  by  dotted  line  X X. 

Project  7a  9a  &c.,  on  to  plan  (Fig.  1),  and  C 
as  centre,  and  7 A,  8 A,  9 A,  &c.,  as  radii,  describe  semi- 
circles which  give  horizontal  lines  in  splay  joints  of 
dome. 

For  the  vertical  joints  follow  divisions  of  joints  in 
cornice,  the  same  number  (eight)  being  required  in  each 
course,  breaking  joint,  as  shown  on  plan  and  section. 

Fig.  3.  Is  a section  on  the  centre  line,  showing  cor- 
belling out  of  the  pendentive  taken  across  the  diagonal 
from  B to  Y on  the  plan  (Fig.  1),  the  radius  of  which 
equals  the  distance  from  C to  B,  and  the  projection  B', 
Y'  equalling  B,  Y on  the  plan  (Fig.  1). 

To  work  the  Double  Springer  No.  1. 

Fig.  4.  1 ^ is  the  bottom  bed  mould,  1 B is  the  top 

bed  mould,  and  1 L is  the  face  mould. 

The  stone  will  require  to  be  cubical  in  form,  and  the 
size  of  bed  mould  1 B,  and  of  the  height  of  face  mould 

1 L. 

Work  the  bottom  bed  and  scribe  in  bed  mould  1 A; 
work  vertical  joints  A B and  A C square  with  the  bot- 
tom bed,  and  apply  face  mould  iL  to  each  joint  and 
scribe  in ; next  take  the  top  bed  k j parallel  to  bottom 
bed.  Work  out  the  check  D E F right  through,  keeping 
the  nosing  of  moulding  fair  or  clean,  and  apply  part  of 


PLATE  XIII. 


3i9 


32° 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


face  mould  I L coinciding  with  the  moulds  marked  on 
vertical  joints  A B and  A C,  which  gives  the  soffit  line 
h b,  the  splay  joint  j h and  the  nose  and  mitre  line  of  the 
archivolt. 

Work  the  splay  joints  j h and  scribe  in  the  archivolt, 
which  is  part  of  the  bed  mould  I A;  next  the  soffits  and 
panels  and  archivolt  mouldings  guided  by  convex  tem- 
plets ; lastly,  work  the  small  concave  portion  of  pen- 
dentive, which  starts  imperceptibly  at  the  angle  G on  the 
bottom  bed,  and  increases  to  / / on  the  top  bed. 

The  convex  templet  i C gives  the  curvature  in  the 
centre  from  G — I A,  to  D — I B . An  obtuse  mitre  is 
formed  on  each  side  where  the  spandrel  intersects  the 
archivolt,  and  is  shown  by  the  segmental  line  j g on  the 
face  mould  i L. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  archivolt  on  the  bed  mould 

1 B is  fore-shortened,  but  i A,  being  a square  section,  is 
used  on  all  arch  joints. 

To  work  No . 2 Arch  Stone . 

Fig.  5.  No.  2 A is  the  bed  mould,  2 L the  face  mould, 

2 B the  joint  mould  of  arch,  and  2 C the  joint  mould  of 
a portion  of  the  pendentive. 

This  stone  will  require  to  be  the  size  of  the  bed  mould, 
and  to  the  extreme  height  of  the  face  mould  2 L from  k 
to  h. 

Begin  by  working  the  top  bed  e c h — 2 L,  and  scribe 
in  bed  mould  2 A,  as  A B C D E.  Work  the  vertical 
joints  A B and  E C square  with  top  bed,  and  scribe  in 
the  face  mould  2 L , and  joint  mould  2 C respectively; 
point  off  vertical  side  A E and  rough  out  section  of 
pendentive  c f from  joint  EC  on  to  face  line  N K,  and 
work  draft  through  at  J J for  nosing.  Apply  part  of 


PLATE  XIV, 


321 


DOME 

FIG. 12 


eco  ms 


322  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 

face  mould  h d f n k — 2 L,  coinciding  with  the  face  mould 
marked  in  on  vertical  joint  A B , and  work  the  splay 
joints  h d — n k,  and  bottom  bed  a n.  Scribe  in  archivolt 
mould  2 B on  joints  h d and  n k,  and  run  the  moulding 
through;  clean  in  portion  of  pendentive  c f — 2 C inter- 
secting with  archivolt  and  forming  obtuse  mitre  on  the 
segment  line  n to  h,  and  lastly,  work  panelled  soffit. 

Fig.  6.  No.  3 arch  stone  is  worked  in  a similar  man- 
ner to  the  foregoing  No.  2 (Fig.  5). 

No.  4,  the  keystone,  needs  but  little  explanation,  it 
being  worked  similarly  to  that  of  a right  arch,  with  the 
exception  of  the  mitre  of  the  pendentive,  which  is  here 
very  obtuse  and  loses  itself  at  k . 

The  section  mould  at  each  joint  is  3 B (Fig.  6),  taken 
to  the  dotted  line. 

Note. — The  dotted  lines  show  the  projection  of  co- 
inciding points  in  the  face  and  bed  moulds  of  Figs.  4,  5, 
and  6. 

The  section  of  cornice  directly  under  dome  is  shown 
on  Fig.  2,  No.  6.  A bed  mould  for  this  is  required  and 
also  convex  templets  for  the  mouldings  and  fillets,  these 
are  obtained  from  the  plan  (Fig.  1),  6 A being  the  nose 
line. 

The  working  of  this  stone  presents  no  difficulty. 

To  work  the  Voussoirs  in  the  Dome. 

The  shape  of  stone  for  working  one  of  these  is  first,  a 
rectangular  prism,  of  the  extreme  length  of  the  bed 
mould  7 A (Fig.  7),  as  shown  by  circumscribed  dotted 
lines  F F , and  of  the  height  of  joint  mould  7 B , and 
second,  that  of  a segment  of  a hollow  cylinder,  as  shown 
in  sketch  CFi«.  10),  which  contains  the  finished  block. 


DOMES  AND  PENDENTIVES  323 

Fig.  7.  7 A is  the  bed  mould,  and  7 B the  section  or 
joint  mould  of  springer,  or  first  stone  in  dome. 

Begin  by  working  the  bottom  bed  a e — 7 B}  and  scribe 
on  the  bed  mould  7 A , the  dotted  line  A A being  the 
wall  line  on  bottom  bed,  which  must  be  worked  fair  to 
preserve  the  arris  a.  Work  the  joints  B D square  with 
the  bed,  and  scribe  in  the  joint  mould  7 B . Work  off 
the  top  bed  c d and  splay  joint  c b,  a convex  templet 
giving  the  arris  B B,  and  lastly  the  concave  of  intrados 
a b . 

The  back  D D is  left  rough. 

Fig.  8.  To  work  the  second  stone  in  dome  No.  8. 
8 A is  the  bed  mould,  and  8 B the  section,  or  joint  mould. 

Work  the  top  bed,  b c d — 8 B and  scribe  in  bed  mould, 
8 A,  to  the  extreme  size,  as  D D,  B B,  the  dotted  line 
A A being  the  horizontal  arris  of  joint  and  soffit  at  a; 
the  line  C C top  line  of  splay  joint  c\  and  the  line  B B 
the  horizontal  arris  of  joint  and  soffit  at  b 1. 

Work  the  joint,  B D square  with  the  top  bed,  and 
scribe  in  the  joint  mould,  8 B;  at  points  B B,  at  depth 
b 1,  work  a concave  draft,  and  draw  the  horizontal  line 
of  joint  and  arris  of  soffit.  Next  work  off  the  splay 
joint  c V , also  the  splay  joint  a e , and  lastly  the  concave 
surface  of  intrados. 

The  back  D D is  left  rough. 

Fig.  10.  Shows  a sketch  of  this  stone  completed. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  stones  Nos.  2 and  3 
(Figs.  5 and  6),  previously  described,  are  worked  to 
one  hand;  for  the  opposite  hand,  the  same  moulds  and 
templets  will  do,  if  reversed. 

No.  5 (Fig.  2),  is  a plain  spherical  stone  in  the  pen- 
dentive,  and  is  worked  similarly  to  those  in  the  dome,  as 
above  described. 


324 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


To  construct  a Spheroidal  Dome,  with  an  aperture  at 
the  apex  or  top.  The  bed-joints  are  conical  surfaces, 
and  terminate  on  the  extrados  and  intrados,  in  horizontal 
circles.  The  vertical  joints  are  contained  within  a plane, 
which  intersects  with  the  axis  of  the  dome. 

Fig.  ii.  Shows  half-plan  of  the  dome. 

Fig.  12.  Shows  section  of  the  dome  through  the 
centre. 

For  the  making  of  the  moulds,  and  working  this 
dome,  a quarter  only  is  necessary  to  be  set  out  full- 
size,  but  in  order  to  show  it  more  clearly  the  half  is 
here  given. 

Begin  by  setting  out  on  the  plan  (Fig.  n),  the  centre 
lines,  A C A and  C K.  With  C as  a centre  and  C A as 
radius,  describe  the  semicircle  AKA , giving  the  extreme 
boundary  of  exterior  surface,  or  extrados  of  dome.  The 
thickness  of  the  dome  having  been  determined  as  A B, 
with  C as  centre  and  C B as  radius,  describe  the  semi- 
circle B B,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  giving  the 
extreme  boundary  of  interior  surface,  or  intrados  of 
dome.  Project  lines  A and  B to  springing  line,  Fig.  12, 
and  with  c c as  centres  set  up  the  section  of  dome,  and 
divide  the  same  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  for  bed- 
joints  as  may  be  convenient  (in  this  example,  seven), 
as  b c d e f g,  and  draw  radiating  lines  for  the  joints 
from  centre,  c.  Project  b c d e,  &c.,  on  to  plan  (Fig. 
11),  and  with  C as  centre  describe  semicircles  b c d e, 
&c. ; the  plan  of  the  arris  of  horizontal  bed-joints  on 
exterior  is  thus  obtained.  For  the  arris  of  horizontal 
bed- joints  on  interior  surface,  project  b c d e,  &c.,  on 
to  plan,  and  draw  the  semicircles  b'f  cf , d',  e' , &c.,  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines  on  right-hand  half. 

For  the  vertical  joints  each  course  will  consist  of  the 


PLATE  XV, 


325 


SKETCH  OF  DOME 


FIG  18 


FI  G . 19 


FIG.EO  FIG. 21  FIG  22  FIG. 23 


326 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


same  number  of  stones  (in  this  example,  twelve),  break- 
ing joint  directly  over  each  other  and  diminishing  in 
size  from  bottom  to  top  course.  These  are  set  out  on 
the  plan. 

The  stones  “hatched  in”  on  the  plan  (Fig.  n),  show 
the  projection  of  one  voussoir  in  each  course,  as  I 2 3 
456  and  7,  and,  being  equal  and  similar  stones,  and 
alike  in  situation,  one  bed  mould  to  each  course  only 
will  be  required. 

To  work  the  Voussoirs. 

The  shape  of  rough  block:  required  for  working  these 
stones  by  this  method  is  a rectangular  prism  of  the 
extreme  length  of  the  bed  mould,  as  1 A (Fig.  14), 
shown  by  the  circumscribed  line,  the  height  being  that 
of  the  joint  mould  1 B ; and  secondly,  that  of  a segment 
of  a hollow  cylinder,  as  shown  in  sketch  (Fig.  17), 
which  contains  the  finished  block,  the  arrises  only  touch- 
ing the  boundaries  of  the  cylinder. 

Fig.  14.  1 A is  the  bed  mould,  and  1 B the  section, 

or  joint  mould,  of  springer,  or  No.  1 stone. 

Begin  by  working  the  bed,  a b — I B,  and  scribe  in 
bed  mould  1 A.  Work  the  joints  B C square  with  the 
bed,  and  scribe  in  joint  mould  1 B.  Work  the  top  bed 
V c'  as  a surface  of  operation,  and  scribe  in  the  line 
D D,  which  gives  the  top  line  of  arris  of  convex  surface 
and  of  splay  joint.  With  the  templet  C C at  c work  the 
horizontal  draft,  giving  the  arris  of  joint  and  of  con- 
cave surface.  Work  the  top,  d c,  to  lines  as  given,  and 
the  inside  concave  surface  a c;  and  lastly,  the  outside 
convex  surface,  b d ' , using  templets  made  at  a c and 
b d for  guidance. 

Fig.  15.  To  work  the  second  stone  (No.  2). 


DOMES  AND  PENDENTIVES 


327 


2 A is  the  bed  mould  and  2 B the  section,  or  joint 
mould.  Work  the  bottom  bed  a ' b'  as  a surface  of  oper- 
ation, and  bed  d ' c'  parallel  to  it.  Labor  need  not  be 
thrown  away  on  these  surfaces,  or  beds,  as  the  arris, 
a a on  one  bed  and  d d on  the  other,  is  all  that  is  required 
to  be  kept  fair;  the  other  portion  may  be  roughly  chis- 
elled off,  and  at  the  same  time  kept  straight.  Scribe 
in  the  bed  mould  on  both  ends,  as  B C — B C,  and  work 
the  joints  B C square  with  same;  scribe  in  the  joint 
mould,  as  b a d c,  to  each  joint.  With  the  templet  C C 
at  c work  a horizontal  draft,  and  draw  a line  parallel  to 
C',  giving  the  arris  of  joint  and  of  concave  surface. 
With  the  templet  D D scribe  in  line  on  the  top  bed,  giv- 
ing the  arris  of  top  joint  and  of  convex  surface.  Work 
off  the  splay  joint  d c to  the  lines  thus  given.  On  the 
bottom  bed,  with  templet  A A scribe  in  line,  giving  the 
arris  of  bottom  joint  and  of  concave  surface.  With  the 
templet  B B at  b work  the  horizontal  draft,  and  draw 
line  parallel  to  V , giving  the  arris  of  bottom  joint  and 
of  convex  surface.  Work  off  the  splay  joint  to  the  lines 
thus  given,  and  inside  concave  surface  a c,  ana  ^.stly 
outside  convex  surface  b d , using  templets  made  at  c c 
and  b d for  guidance. 

The  stones  in  the  other  courses  of  the  dome  are  worked 
in  a similar  manner  to  those  last  described,  except  the 
top  course,  or  rim. 

To  ivork  the  Rim  of  Aperture  in  Dome,  being  the  top , 
or  No.  7,  course. 

Begin  by  working  the  top  bed  cr  f,  and  scribe  in  the 
bed  mould  7 A.  Work  the  joints  C F square  with  bed, 
and  scribe  in  the  joint  mould  7 B.  At  a work  a hori- 


328 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


zontal  draft  straight  to  a,  and  scribe  in  the  templet 
A A,  giving  the  arris  of  bottom  joint  and  concave  sur- 
face; then  work  the  bottom  joint  and  spherical  surfaces 
a b and  c d e. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best 
method  of  working  the  voussoirs  in  a dome,  with  respect 
to  waste  of  material  and  labor.  Perhaps  for  the  first 
and  second  courses,  and  also  the  courses  near  the  apex, 
no  better  method  can  be  followed  than  the  one  just 
described,  and,  as  before  explained,  in  reference  to  vault- 
ing. This  method  is  simple,  gives  the  best  results,  and 
the  stones  are  truer  in  form  when  worked  than  by  using 
a number  of  bevels.  However,  another  method  is  here 
shown,  which  saves  much  material  and  labor,  although 
greater  care  is  required  in  the  execution. 

Another  Method  of  Working  the  Voussoirs . 

Fig.  19.  Let  4 A be  the  bed  mould  of  stone  in  fourth 
course  of  dome.  (This  being  one  of  the  courses  in  which 
there  is  much  waste  by  the  previous  method  of  work- 
ing, and  is  shown  by  section  4 C,  at  line  e f g h.) 

For  the  joint  mould,  4 B}  transfer  No.  4 from  section 
(Fig.  12),  as  d c b a.  Draw  e d parallel  and  e c vertical 
to  the  base,  or  springing  line ; / g h i is  a rectangle,  cir- 
cumscribing the  mould  and  giving  the  size  of  stone 
required.  When  compared  to  that  of  4 C,  e f g h,  the 
difference  is  at  once  seen. 

Select  a stone  sufficiently  large,  so  that  all  the  sur- 
faces and  arrises  are  contained  within  it. 

Fig.  20.  Begin  by  working  a plane  surface  of  opera- 
tion, as  e d,  and  apply  templet  4 A,  and  scribe  in  as 
D E,  D E.  Work  joints  D E square  with  the  bed;  these 


DOMES  AND  PENDENT! VES 


329 


require  careful  working,  a portion  of  the  joint  being 
outside  the  line  of  square,  as  at  X I I but  the  one 
portion  of  joint  having  been  worked,  the  other  is  ob- 
tained by  means  of  the  straight-edge.  Apply  joint  mould 
to  each  joint,  as  d c b a,  and  scribe  in. 

Fig.  21.  Shows  the  next  operation  of  working  the 
convex  spherical  surface,  by  the  guidance  of  a bevel, 
the  stock  of  bevel  being  applied  in  the  direction  of  a 
line  radiating  from  centre  C,  as  the  joint  lines  E D — 4 A- 

Fig.  22.  Shows  the  third  operation,  the  line  b being 
drawn  parallel  to  d ; a bevel  is  used,  giving  the  bottom 
splay  bed.,  b a. 

Fig.  23.  Shows  the  fourth  and  last  operation,  the 
angular  portions,  e g d c being  cut  away  and  bevel  used 
for  splay  joint;  and  the  concave  spherical  surface  is 
worked  by  the  guidance  of  a templet  made  from  a c. 

It  will  be  observed  in  the  working  of  this  stone  that 
by  this  method  the  accuracy  of  the  work  depends  almost 
entirely  on  the  first  plane  surface  of  operation,  and, 
should  any  errors  occur  in  applying  the  bevels  from 
this  bed,  the  stone  will  not  be  of  the  shape  and  form 
intended. 

The  stones  in  other  courses  of  dome  may  be  worked 

in  a similar  manner* 


Plates  XVI,  XVII,  XVIII,  XIX.  GROINED 
VAULTING. 


To  construct  a Groined  Vault,  in  four  compart- 
ments, square  on  plan,  and  supported  by  a central  shaft 
or  column,  with  wall,  transverse,  and  diagonal  ribs. 

Fig.  i.  Is  the  inverted  skeleton  plan  of  vault,  show- 
ing the  general  arrangement  of  compartments:  A A 

being  the  wall  ribs,  B B the  transverse  ribs,  crossing 
the  vault  at  right  angles  to  the  wall,  C C the  diagonal 
ribs,  spanning  across  from  corners  to  the  shaft,  and 
D D the  vaulting  surface. 

Fig.  2.  Shows  the  inverted  plan  of  one  compartment, 
or  one  quarter  of  the  vault,  with  elevation  of  the  wall, 
transverse  and  diagonal  ribs,  each  being  of  equal  height 
at  the  apex,  and  the  ridge  line  of  vaulting  surface  being 
also  level  throughout. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  the  moulds,  and  the  work- 
ing of  this  vault,  a small  portion  of  the  plan  (one-six- 
teenth only),  set  out  to  full  size,  is  all  that  is  necessary, 
the  remainder  being  a repetition ; but,  in  order  to  show 
the  setting  out  more  clearly,  a quarter  of  the  plan  is 
here  given. 

Begin  by  setting  out  the  wall  lines  of  vault,  then  the 
centre  lines  of  wall  ribs  A B and  A Cy  the  transverse 
ribs  B D and  C D , and  the  diagonal  ribs  A D and  B C, 
and  set  off  on  each  side  of  the  centre  lines  the  width 
of  their  section. 


330 


GROINED  VAULTING 


33i 


Before  proceeding  further  it  is  necessary  to  determine 
the  position  of  the  feet  of  ribs  at  the  springing;  these 
generally  depend  on  the  plan  of  the  abacus  of  cap,  and 
it  is  also  a matter  of  arrangement,  as  well  as  of  taste 
and  design,  so  that  no  fixed  rule  can  be  given. 

In  this  example  the  ribs  are  arranged  so  that  the  nos- 
ings are  equi-distant  from  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  centre  line  of  ribs  at  A B C D,  in  order  that  the 
wall  ribs  and  transverse  ribs  may  be  of  the  same  curva- 
ture, and  also  that  the  opening  or  span  between  the 
nosing  of  springers  may  be  equal. 

Having  set  out  the  position  of  the  springers  at  A B 
C D on  plan,  the  next  process  is  to  find  the  elevation 
or  contour  of  the  ribs.  This  is  generally  governed  by 
the  wall  ribs,  which  have  some  opening  or  arch  in  the 
wall  below  them,  regulating  to  some  extent  the  form  of 
vaulting.  In  some  cases,  perhaps,  it  may  be  preferable 
to  begin  with  the  transverse  or  diagonal  rib,  but  this 
again  depends  on  the  shape  of  the  vault. 

In  this  example  the  contour  of  the  transverse  and  wall 
ribs  are  similar,  their  span  being  equal,  as  before  ex- 
plained. 

Begin  by  drawing  the  wall  rib  first.  Take  the  centre 
line  A B on  plan,  and  make  use  of  it  as  a base  or  spring- 
ing line.  Erect  a perpendicular  as  a centre  line  at  M 
on  the  plan,  and  on  this  set  up  the  height  of  vault,  as 
at  £.  Let  point  No.  1 be  the  centre  from  which  the 
wall  rib  is  struck,  and  with  this  as  a centre,  and  nosing 
G as  radius,  draw  the  segment  line  .S'  for  the  nose  of 
rib  on  the  soffit,  cutting  the  centre  line  at  apex  E ; gauge 
on  the  width  of  members  of  the  rib,  from  the  line  of 
soffit  S as  H J K,  and  with  the  same  centre,  No.  1,  draw 
the  segment  lines  through  these  points,  thus  forming  the 


33^ 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


wall  rib.  This  is  also  the  elevation  of  the  transverse 
rib. 

The  profile  of  the  diagonal  rib  is  now  to  be  obtained, 
and  the  first  consideration  is  the  shape  of  the  vault. 
If  a horizontal  section  be  taken  through  any  one  of  the 
compartments,  above  the  springers,  and  the  vaulting, 
or  filling  in,  between  the  ribs  is  rectangular  in  shape 
and  parallel  to  the  sides,  the  courses  of  stone  forming 
the  vaulting  surfaces  are  level,  and  the  upper  edges  of 
the  diagonal  ribs,  upon  which  the  filling-in  rests,  are  por- 
tions of  elliptic  curves.  These  curves  are  obtained  by 
ordinates,  the  curvature  being  subordinate  to  the  wall 
rib ; this  is  sometimes  done,  but  as  the  elliptic  rib  entails 
more  work  both  in  the  setting  out  and  in  the  execution, 
the  simpler  method  of  using  compound  circular  curves 
is  generally  adopted,  and  with  perhaps  better  results  con- 
structively. The  ribs  are  thus  made  geometrically  regu- 
lar, while  the  filling-in  surfaces  take  their  chance  as  it 
were,  and  are  adjusted  to  the  curvature  of  the  ribs,  and 
although  twisting  to  some  extent,  yet  do  not  offend  the 
eye,  which  is  guided  mainly  by  the  principal  lines,  and 
not  the  surfaces. 

Another  consideration  is  the  separation  of  the  ribs 
at  one  level,  at  the  point  where  they  become  fully  devel- 
oped. The  more  equally  the  ribs  can  be  grouped  together 
at  the  springing,  without  projecting  at  unequal  distances 
before  each  other,  the  better  it  is  for  their  separation 
or  clearance,  the  advantage  of  this  being,  that  the  wind- 
ing in  the  vaulting  surface  is  much  reduced,  and  is  free 
from  that  ploughshare-like  twist,  to  which  objection  is 
sometimes  made.  The  ribs  are  also  equal  in  depth  and 
of  the  same  cross  section,  and  the  setting  out  and  the 
working  generally  are  easier.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 


PLATE  XVI 


333 


CROINED  VAULTING 


PLAN  OF  ONE  QUARTER  OF  THE  VAULT 
AND  ELEVATION  OF  RIOS 


334 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


impossible  to  do  this,  and  the  ribs  are  then  arranged 
to  suit  the  conditions  of  the  case. 

In  this  example  the  contour  of  the  diagonal  is  struck 
from  centres,  and  these  may  be  varied  to  suit  any  ad- 
justment of  curvature. 

The  point  at  which  the  feet  of  ribs  is  struck  should 
be  on  the  springing  line,  neither  above  nor  below,  for 
if  above  the  rib  would  be  stilted,  and  if  below  an  acute 
angle  would  be  formed  with  the  springing  line,  neither 
of  which  results  is  pleasing. 

Let  A D the  centre  line  of  diagonal  rib  on  plan  (Fig. 
2),  be  the  base  of  springing  line  for  the  elevation  of 
rib;  produce  the  centre  lipe  C B,  which  is  perpendicular 
to  A D,  as  the  centre  line  of  elevation,  and  on  this  set 
up,  from  the  base  line  to  the  apex  of  the  soffit  of  rib,  the 
height  N L , equal  to  the  height  M E on  the  elevation 
of  the  wall  rib.  Next  in  the  elevation  of  wall  rib,  find 
the  point  of  clearance,  or  where  the  rib  separates  from 
the  springer,  and  the  full  section  of-  rib  is  obtained ; this 
will  be  the  point  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  rib  vertically 
over  the  point  where  the  sides  of  the  rib  intersect  at  P 
on  plan.  At  P erect  a perpendicular  to  the  springing 
line  A B,  cutting  the  upper  edge  of  rib  at  0 in  elevation, 
which  is  the  point  of  separation,  or  where  the  wall  rib 
is  fully  developed,  and  clears  the  springer.  Through  the 
same  point  P,  erect  a perpendicular  to  the  springing  line 
AD  on  the  diagonal,  and  set  off  the  height  F Q,  equal 
to  the  height  at  wall  rib  of  G O;  the  diagonal  rib  thus 
clears  the  springer  at  point  Q,  the  back  edge  of  the  rib 
at  vaulting  surface. 

Two  points  are  already  given  in  the  curve  of  the  diag- 
onal rib,  namely  at  F,  the  springing,  and  at  L,  the  apex, 
but  a third  is  required.  Now  at  point  Q describe  an 


■~i  rttr 


PLATE  XVII, 


335 


GROINED  VAULTINC 


FIG  . 4 


FIG.  5 


336 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


arc  with  radius  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  rib  as  at  O, 
and  it  will  be  at  once  evident  that  the  arc  furnishes  a 
point  through  which  the  curve  of  rib  must  be  drawn. 
Commence  on  the  springing  line  A D , and  find  a centre 
by  which  the  curve  may  be  drawn  from  F,  to  touch  the 
arc  whose  centre  is  Q , but  as  this  throws  the  curve  too 
high,  and  would  make  a cripple,  find  a centre,  No.  2, 
that  takes  the  curve  still  higher,  that  is  to  R as  shown 
by  the  dotted  line.  Now  find  a centre  as  No.  3,  and 
draw  curve  to  R from  the  apex  L.  An  intermediate 
radius  is  now  required,  by  which  a curve  may  be  drawn 
touching  the  arc  whose  centre  is  Q,  and  intersecting  the 
other  curves  Nos.  2 and  3.  This  is  found  at  No.  4,  and 
the  curvature  of  the  diagonal  rib  thus  obtained  is  easy 
and  graceful,  retaining  also  the  pointed  form.  Gauge 
on  the  width  of  members  of  the  rib  from  the  line  of 
soffit,  and  with  their  respective  radii  draw  curves  form- 
ing the  elevation  of  the  diagonal  rib. 

The  radii  and  centres  are  best  found  by  repeated 
trials. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  arrange  the  joints  of 
the  springers  and  ribs,  and  the  filling-in  to  the  vaulted 
surfaces. 

The  joints  of  the  springers  are  usually  worked  in 
horizontal  or  level  courses,  except  a portion  of  the  top 
bed,  where  the  ribs  separate  and  are  fully  developed; 
this  portion  is  inclined  or  splayed  from  the  level  bed, 
and  abutment  joints  are  thus  formed  which  radiate  to 
their  centres. 

The  joints  for  the  ribs  may  be  drawn  to  any  convenient 
length  to  suit  the  size  of  stones,  and  they  must  radiate 
to  the  centres  from  which  that  part  of  the  rib  is  struck. 

The  diagonal  ribs  which  intersect  at  the  apex  and 


GROINED  VAULTING 


337 


form  the  key  are  the  same  in  curvature,  and  will  prop- 
erly mitre  into  each  other;  the  arms  or  stumps  at  each 
side  of  the  intersection  are  drawn  at  will  to  any  con- 
venient length. 

The  filling-in  to  the  vaulted  surfaces  is  in  narrow  bands 
of  stone,  four  or  five  inches  wide,  and  with  beds  slightly 
radiating.  These  bands  start  from  the  point  where  the 
ribs  separate  at  the  top  of  springers,  and  are  continued 
in  parallel  courses  until  they  meet  obliquely  at  the  apex, 
taking  then  the  form  of  key  blocks ; these  key  blocks  are 
rack  shaped,  and  derive  support  from  the  bands  which 
abut  against  them,  and  also  rest  on  the  wall  ribs  and 
mitre  junctions  in  the  centre  of  the  vault.  The  filling-in 
bands  being  narrow  on  the  face  the  twist  to  each  stone 
is  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible;  moulds  may 
be  made  to  these  if  desired  from  the  elevation  of  wall 
and  diagonal  ribs,  but  the  twist  on  the  stones  is  usually 
worked  on  the  scaffold  at  the  time  of  fixing,  this  being 
the  most  economical  way.  The  key  blocks  also  are  sim- 
ple in  construction,  the  making  of  moulds  and  working 
of  the  stones  presenting  no  difficulty. 

Attention  may  now  be  directed  to  the  setting  out  in 
detail  and  to  the  working  of  the  various  stones. 

Fig.  3.  Shows  the  setting  out  of  the  springers  to 
a larger  scale.  The  section  moulds  for  diagonal  and 
transverse  ribs  are  given  at  Y,  and  that  of  the  wall  rib, 
which  is  slightly  different  on  the  wall  side,  at  Z . 

The  centre  lines  having  been  drawn,  the  section  moulds 
of  ribs  Y and  Z are  applied  until  the  position  of  the  ribs 
is  arranged  equi-distant  from  the  point  of  intersection 
of  the  centre  lines,  as  before  explained. 

The  notation  is  the  same  as  that  of  Fig.  2. 


338 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Fig.  4.  Shows  the  bed  and  joint  moulds  of  No.  1, 
or  bottom  stone  in  springer. 

1 A is  the  bottom  bed  mould,  1 C is  the  top  bed  mould 
or  middle  bed  (this  also  will  be  the  bottom  bed  mould 
of  No.  2,  or  upper  stone  in  springer  at  dotted  line  g f g), 
and  1 B is  the  section  mould  taken  through  the  centre 
line  of  wall  rib. 

Commence  by  working  the  back  joints  E C and  E C' 
(which  may  be  taken  as  surfaces  of  operation),  and 
scribe  on  the  section  mould  1 B on  each  joint.  Work 
the  bottom  and  top  beds  square  from  back  joint,  these 
being  parallel  to  each  other,  and  scribe  in  the  bed  moulds 
1 A on  bottom  bed  and  1 C on  the  top  bed.  Work  the 
two  concave  joints  C D and  Cr  D'y  guided  by  a convex 
templet,  and  the  nosing  of  rib  from  A to  A and  the  nos- 
ing of  ribs  B to  B,  guided  by  the  convex  templets  a and 
b.  The  moulding  is  now  to  be  worked,  using  small 
reverses  and  templets  for  guidance. 

Fig.  5.  Shows  the  bed  and  joint  mould  of  No.  2 or 
upper  stone  of  the  springer. 

1 C (Fig.  4)  is  the  bottom  bed  mould,  2 C is  the  top 
bed  mould,  and  2 B is  the  section  mould  taken  through 
the  centre  line  of  the  wall  rib.  Work  the  back  joints 
F G and  F Gr,  and  scribe  on  the  section  mould  2 B on 
each  joint.  Work  off  the  bottom  bed  square  from  the 
back  joint,  scribing  on  the  bed  mould  1 C (Fig.  4)  to 
the  dotted  line  f g;  next  work  off  the  top  bed  square 
from  the  back  joint  and  parallel  to  the  bottom  bed,  and 
the  splay  joint  for  the  seating  of  diagonal  rib.  The 
bevel  for  this  may  be  obtained  from  2 A (Fig.  3)  or 
the  nose  line  may  be  squared  down  from  the  top  bed 
and  the  depth  gauged  on.  On  the  centre  lines  of  the 
top  bed  scribe  on  the  section  of  rib  moulds  Y and  Z . 


PLATE  XVIII, 


339 


1 

mm i 

r ! ! ! ! ' 

FIG. 8 

1 

1 

1 

ki  • 

1 »k3L 
| • ? 

1 • i 

— | | 1 
1 Jl 

Tit 

FIG  7 


4) 


s*. 


«>. 


ZC*LB  or^ 


340 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Work  the  two  concave  joints  G H and  G'  H also  the 
nosing  of  rib  from  A to  A and  the  nosing  of  ribs  from 
B to  B,  guided  by  convex  templets.  The  moulding  is 
now  carefully  worked,  using  small  reverses  and  tem- 
plets for  guidance. 

The  springers  when  worked  will  truly  mitre  from 
the  springing  to  the  separation  of  ribs. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  centre  lines  of  the  ribs 
are  vertically  over  one  another,  or  in  the  same  vertical 
plane,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5 — 2 C,  in  which  the  mould  No. 
1 C for  the  bottom  bed  is  marked  on,  and  again  in  Fig. 
7 — 2 F,  where  the  mould  1 F,  for  the  bottom  bed,  is  also 
marked  on. 

The  moulds  should  always  be  made  this  way  with 
the  sections  vertically  over  one  another. 

It  will  be  observed  in  the  bed  mould  2 C (Fig.  5)  that 
although  the  moulding  to  ribs  is  given  it  is  omy  approxi- 
mate, and  cannot  be  worked  to  accurately,  because  it  is 
here  foreshortened,  and  consequently  a little  distorted. 
This  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig.  3,  the  plane  at  1, 
2,  3>  4>  5 being  that  to  which  the  mouldings  are  projected 
from  the  splay  joint.  The  position  of  nosing,  however, 
is  correctly  given,  starting  square  down  at  the  depth 
of  the  splay  joint  from  the  horizontal  bed. 

The  section  of  the  rib  moulding  at  the  middle  bed, 
or  at  any  horizontal  line  of  the  springer,  may  be  obtained 
by  projection.  Divide  the  square  section  of  the  rib  into 
any  number  of  parts  as  in  Fig.  8 at  1 2 3 4 5 6.  Set 
off  these  points  on  the  elevation  of  the  rib,  and  from 
the  centre  draw  the  segmental  lines  through,  cutting  the 
horizontal  line  or  bed;  transfer  these  points  of  inter- 
section to  the  centre  line  of  the  rib  on  plan,  and  draw 
lines  through  square  from  the  centre  line,  and  make 


GROINED  VAULTING 


34i 


them  equal  to  1 1 — 2 2 — 3 3,  &c.,  of  square  section,  and 
draw  the  curves  through  these  points,  giving  the  true 
section  at  horizontal  level. 

Fig.  6.  Shows  the  bed  and  joint  moulds  of  springers 
of  No.  1 or  bottom  stone  at  B and  C on  the  plan  (Fig.  2). 

1 D is  the  bottom  bed  mould,  1 F is  the  top  bed  mould, 
and  1 £ is  the  section  mould  taken  through  the  centre 
line  of  wall  rib  B B. 

Fig.  7.  Shows  the  bed  and  joint  moulds  of  No.  2 
or  upper  stone  springers  at  B and  C on  the  plan  (Fig.  2). 

1 F (Fig.  6)  is  the  bottom  bed  mould,  2 F is  the  top 
bed  mould,  and  2 £ is  the  section  mould  taken  through 
the  centre  line  of  wall  rib  B B. 

The  moulds  for  the  central  springer  at  D on  the  shaft 
are  identical  with  the  last-named  (Fig.  6 and  Fig.  7). 
The  centre  line  at  B B being  half  of  the  mould,  this  half 
scribed  on  the  stone  and  then  reversed  for  the  other  half, 
gives  a completed  whole. 

These  last-named  springers  are  worked  precisely  as 
those  already  described,  the  same  templets  as  before  being 
used  for  the  nosing  of  ribs  and  concave  joints. 

Fig.  9.  Shows  the  bed  and  section  mould  of  the  key- 
stone at  the  intersection  of  the  diagonal  ribs.  A is  the 
bed  mould,  B is  the  section  mould,  taken  vertically 
through  the  centre,  and  C is  the  section  mould  of  the 
rib. 

Work  a plane  bed  as  a surface  of  operation,  and  scribe 
in  the  bed  mould  A on  the  soffit.  Work  off  the  splay 
joints  to  bevel,  and  scribe  in  the  section  mould  of  rib 
C on  each  joint;  work  out  the  square  checks  on  each 
side  of  ribs,  and  cut  the  nosings  to  a concave  shape, 
guided  by  convex  templets.  Now  run  the  mouldings  in 
on  each  stump  to  their  intersection,  forming  mitres, 


342 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


cut  off  the  back  if  required,  and  take  out  the  rebate  for 
vaulting  surfaces. 

Fig.  io.  Shows  a sketch  of  the  rib. 

The  working  of  this  requires  but  little  description,  it 
being  treated  as  a simple  arch  stone.  A plane  surface 
is  first  formed;  on  this  the  face  mould  is  scribed,  and 
the  joints  which  radiate  from  the  curve  of  the  soffit  are 
then  squared  through,  and  the  section  mould  of  rib  is 
scribed  in  on  each  joint.  The  stone  is  next  worked  to 
a parallel  thickness,  the  rebate  for  vaulting  surface  being 
taken  out  and  the  moulding  run  through,  guided  by 
convex  templets  and  reverses. 

Fig.  ii.  Shows  a sketch  of  part  of  the  vault. 


PLATE  XIX. 


343 


GROINED  nr  „ VAULTING 

FIG  .11 


SKETCH  OF  PART  of  VAULT 


Plates  XX,  XXI,  XXII,  XXIII. 
GROINED  VAULTING. 


To  construct  a Groined  Vault,  square  on  plan,  with 
wall,  diagonal,  intermediate  and  ridge  ribs. 

This  vault  is  somewhat  different  to  the  one  previously 
shown  on  pages  89  and  90,  in  having  intermediate  ribs, 
ridge  ribs  and  bosses. 

Ornamental  bosses  are  introduced  into  these  vaults,  as 
it  is  not  possible  to  nicely  mitre  the  mouldings  of  the  " 
ribs,  at  the  intersection  of  the  apex  or  ridge,  on  account 
of  the  different  inclinations  of  the  ribs.  The  mouldings, 
therefore,  die  into  the  bosses,  and  the  difficulty  is  got 
over.  The  bosses  also  give  strength  and  richness  to  the 
vault. 

Fig.  1.  Is  the  inverted  plan  of  vault,  showing  the 
general  arrangement  of  ribs,  A A being  the  wall  ribs, 

B B the  diagonal  ribs,  C C the  intermediate  ribs,  D D 
the  ridge  ribs,  and  E the  vaulting  surface,  or  filling  in, 
and  F the  bosses. 

Fig.  2.  Shows  the  inverted  plan  of  one  quarter  of 
the  vault,  with  elevation  of  the  wall,  diagonal,  intermedi- 
ate, and  ridge  ribs,  each  being  of  equal  height  at  the 
apex,  and  the  ridge  ribs  being  also  level  throughout. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  the  moulds  and  working 
the  vault,  only  one  quarter  is  necessary  to  be  set  out, 
the  remainder  being  a repetition.  Begin  by  setting  out 
the  wall  lines  of  vault,  then  the  centre  lines  of  wall,  ridge, 
intermediate,  and  diagonal  ribs,  and  draw  circles  for 
bosses,  at  the  intersection  of  ribs. 

344 


S PRINGER 


PLATE  XX.  345 

GROINED  VAULTING 


346 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Determine  the  position  of  the  feet  of  ribs,  at  the 
springing  line,  as  shown  at  Fig.  3.  The  noses  of  these 
ribs  are  arranged  so  as  to  touch  a segmental  line  (the 
abacus  of  cap  upon  which  the  springer  rests  being  seg- 
mental). Gauge  off  on  each  side  of  the  centre  lines  the 
width  of  ridge,  intermediate,  diagonal,  and  wall  ribs ; the 
first  three  are  equal,  but  the  wall  ribs  are  only  a little 
more  than  half  the  width  of  the  others,  in  order  that 
the  nosings  should  be  of  one  size. 

To  complete  the  portion  of  the  plan,  the  filling  in,  to 
the  vaulted  surface,  must  now  be  set  out. 

Narrow  bands  of  stone,  or  chalk,  of  various  widths, 
but  generally  parallel,  are  mostly  used.  In  the  spandrel 
pieces  on  the  plan,  between  the  wall  and  intermediate 
ribs,  and  intermediate  and  diagonal  ribs,  the  joints  are  set 
out  at  right  angles  to  a line  bisecting  the  angle  formed 
by  these  ribs. 

Space  out  these  bands,  on  the  rebate  line  of  wall  rib, 
on  the  elevation  Fig.  2,  as  at  a a a,  and  project  on  to  the 
side  of  the  wall  rib,  on  plan,  as  at  b b b;  draw  the  joints 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  bisection,  which  produce  to 
side  of  the  intermediate  rib  as  c c c.  Square  the  joints 
across  this  rib  as  shown  at  d d d;  the  points  thus  obtained 
give  the  position  of  the  bands,  between  the  intermediate 
and  the  diagonal  rib,  which  are  drawn  similarly  to  the 
preceding. 

The  next  process  is  to  find  the  elevation,  or  contour 
of  ribs,  which  in  the  present  example  is  governed  by  the 
wall  rib,  and  this  regulates  to  some  extent  the  form  of 
vaulting. 

Begin  by  drawing  the  wall  rib,  taking  the  centre  line 
A B on  plan  as  a base  or  springing  line,  then  at  E,  the 
centre  of  side  of  vault,  erect  a perpendicular  as  a centre 


GROINED  VAULTING 


347 


line,  and  set  up  the  height  of  vault  as  at  F.  Point  No.  i 
is  the  centre  from  which  the  wall  rib  is  struck,  with  this 
point  as  a centre,  and  the  distance  to  nosing  G as  radius, 
draw  the  segment  line  N for  the  nose  of  rib  on  the  soffit, 
cutting  the  centre  line  at  the  apex  F , which  may  be  also 
called  a datum  line,  this  line  being  the  height  to  which 
all  the  ribs  are  drawn.  Next  gauge  on  the  width  of  the 
members  of  rib,  from  the  line  of  soffit  S,  as  T U V > and 
with  the  same  centre  No.  I draw  segmental  lines  through 
these  points,  thus  completing  the  wall  rib. 

The  elevation  of  the  intermediate  and  diagonal  ribs 
is  now  to  be  obtained,  and  the  first  consideration  is  the 
separation  of  the  ribs  at  one  level.  This  separation  of 
the  ribs  is  of  primary  importance  both  in  the  working 
and  the  setting  out,  and  has  been  fully  explained  in  the 
previous  section. 

For  the  elevation  of  the  intermediate  rib,  commence 
on  the  centre  line  of  rib  AC  on  the  plan,  and  at  G erect 
a perpendicular  to  A C as  the  centre  line ; on  this  set  up 
the  height  G H,  equal  to  E F,  on  the  elevation  of  the 
wall  rib. 

Next  find  the  point  in  the  elevation  of  the  wall  rib, 
where  the  rib  clears  itself  and  separates  from  the  springer. 
At  / erect  a perpendicular  to  springing  line  A B,  cutting 
the  upper  edge  of  the  rib  at  0,  in  elevation,  which  is 
the  point  of  separation  of  the  rib,  or  where  it  is  fully 
developed,  and  clears  the  springer.  Through  the  same 
point  / erect  a perpendicular  to  the  springing  line  A C 
on  the  intermediate  rib,  and  set  off  the  height  N P,  equal 
to  the  height  of  wall  rib  at  M 0.  The  intermediate  rib 
thus  clears  the  springer  at  point  P,  the  back  edge  of  rib 
at  vaulting  surface.  Two  points  are  already  in  the  curve 
of  the  intermediate  rib,  namely,  at  R the  springing, 


34» 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


and  at  H the  apex,  but  a third  is  required.  Now  at  point 
P describe  an  arc,  with  radius  equal  to  the  depth  of  the 
rib  as  at  0 , containing  a point  through  which  the  curve 
of  rib  must  be  drawn.  Commence  on  the  springing  line 
A C,  and  find  by  trial  a centre,  and  draw  the  curve  from 
R to  touch  or  approach  the  arc,  whose  centre  is  P . Find 
a centre  No.  2,  and  draw  the  curve  from  R towards  the 
arc,  and  with  centre  No.  3 continue  the  curve  to  apex 
H . From  the  line  of  soffit  gauge  the  width  of  members 
of  rib,  and  with  centres  Nos.  2 and  3 draw  the  curves, 
forming  the  elevation  of  the  intermediate  rib.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  curves  are  regular,  and  that  crip- 
ples are  avoided. 

The  elevation  of  the  diagonal  rib  is  to  be  next  obtained, 
and  the  method  adopted  is  similar  to  the  foregoing,  or 
as  in  the  preceding  example.  Centres  are  found  by  trial, 
as  at  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6,  and  the  curves  drawn  from  them. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  arrange  the  joints  of 
the  springers,  and  the  ribs,  and  these  may  be  drawn  to 
any  convenient  size.  The  joints  of  the  ribs,  above  the 
springers,  radiate  to  their  respective  centres,  and  the 
joints  of  the  springers  will  have  horizontal  beds. 

The  moulds  and  templets  for  the  springers  are  made, 
and  the  stones  worked  similarly  to  those  already  described 
in  preceding  example. 

The  ridge  ribs  and  the  bosses  have  now  to  be  described, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  moulds,  and  working  of 
the  stones. 

Fig.  4.  Is  the  bed  mould  and  sections  of  the  central 
boss  stone,  A being  the  bed  mould,  B the  section  mould, 
through  the  centre  of  the  boss,  and  curved  ribs,  and  C 
is  part  section  mould,  through  the  centre  of  boss,  and 
ridge  ribs.  It  will  be  seen  that  neither  of  these  last  two 


PLATE  XXI. 


349- 


fig.  i 


FIG  . 8 


350 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


moulds  can  be  applied  direct  on  the  stone,  but  are  used 
to  obtain  the  bevels  of  the  joints,  curvature  and  position 
of  the  ribs,  and  contour  for  the  carving,  as  well  as  to 
show  the  true  form  at  those  sections. 

The  stumps,  or  arms,  in  this  example  are  perhaps  longer 
than  they  need  be,  but  are  here  emphasized  to  show  more 
clearly  the  working.  The  four  joints  of  the  diagonal  ribs 
radiate  to  their  centres,  and  form  a key,  the  other  four 
joints  are  arranged  so  as  to  form  skew  backs,  upon  which 
the  ridge  stones  are  supported. 

There  are  several  ways  of  working  these  boss  stones, 
and  the  one  now  to  be  described  is  similar  to  that  adopted 
by  the  old  Gothic  masons,  which  has  also  simplicity  to 
recommend  it.  There  must  necessarily  be  waste  of  stone 
as  well  as  labor,  whatever  method  is  chosen. 

First  form  a plane  surface  of  operation,  as  a & on  the 
section  B,  so  that  when  fixed,  this  bed  is  horizontal,  and 
on  this  scribe  in  the  bed  mould  A . Work  off  the  splay 
joints  e f to  receive  ridge,  the  bevel  being  obtained  from 
the  section  C,  and  the  radiating  joints  c d,  for  the 
diagonal  ribs,  getting  the  bevel  for  these  from  section  B, 
scribe  in  the  section  mould  of  rib  E,  to  splay  joint  for  the 
ridge,  and  the  section  mould  of  rib  D,  to  the  radiating 
joint  for  the  diagonal  ribs.  Now  work  the  stumps  and 
mouldings  in  against  the  boss,  using  templets  made  from 
section  moulds  B and  C for  guidance. 

The  boss  may  be  shaped  out  and  carved  before  fixing, 
or  left  rough  from  the  point,  and  carved  after  fixing,  the 
latter  method  being  generally  adopted. 

Fig.  5.  Is  the  bed  mould  and  sections  of  intermediate 
boss  stone,  and  part  of  the  ridge,  F being  the  bed  mould, 
G the  section  mould,  through  the  centre  of  the  boss  and 
ridge  rib,  and  H part  section  mould  through  the  boss 


PLATE  XXII 


351 


352 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


and  intermediate  ribs.  Neither  of  these  last  two  moulds 
can  be  applied,  but  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
bevels,  curvature,  and  position  of  ribs,  &c.,  as  in  the  case 
of  central  boss  stone  (Fig.  4). 

First  form  a plane  surface  of  operation,  which  will  be 
horizontal,  as  a b on  the  section  G,  and  on  this  scribe  in 
the  bed  mould  F,  then  rough  the  stone  out  to  shape  and 
work  off  the  joints,  the  bevels  being  obtained  from  the 
section  moulds  G and  H,  scribe  in  the  section  moulds  E , 
for  the  ridge  rib,  and  D for  the  intermediate  ribs.  Next 
work  the  ribs  in  against  boss,  and  complete  the  mould- 
ings; the  boss  may  be  treated  as  in  Fig.  4. 

Fig.  6.  Shows  the  bed  mould,  and  also  sections  of 
key  to  ridge  and  wall  ribs,  / being  the  bed  mould,  K and 
L the  section  moulds. 

First  form  a plane  surface  of  operation,  which  is  hori- 
zontal as  a & on  the  section  K , and  on  this  scribe  in  the 
bed  mould  /,  work  off  the  vertical  back  joint  c d , and 
scribe  in  the  section  mould  K,  and  work  the  splay  joints 
e f through  for  wall  ribs.  Next  work  the  splay  joint 
g h , by  aid  of  bevel  taken  from  the  section  L,  and  scribe 
in  the  section  mould  of  ribs,  cut  ribs  in  against  boss,  and 
complete  the  mouldings.  The  boss  may  be  treated  as  in 
Fig.  4. 

In  Fig.  3,  at  section  A,  the  mouldings  to  ribs  are  shown, 
but  in  the  other  figures  these  mouldings  are  represented 
by  a chamfer,  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  scale 
to  which  they  are  drawn. 

On  the  plan  of  the  springing  (Fig.  3),  the  letters  are 
identical  with  those  at  the  springing  on  the  smaller  scale 
(Fig.  2),  in  order  that  the  reference  to  them  may  be 
more  clear. 

Fig.  7.  Shows  a sketch  of  part  of  the  vault. 


PLATE  XXIII 


353 


GROINED  VAULTING 


FIG  . 7 


SKETCH  OF  PART  OF  VAULT 


354 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Fig.  8.  The  extent  to  which  vaulting  of  a compli- 
cated nature  may  be  carried  out  is  shown  in  the  plan 
here  given  of  part  of  the  vaulting  at  the  Members’  pri- 
vate entrance,  House  of  Commons. 

The  student  may  be  reminded  that  the  examples  here 
given  of  groined  vaulting  deal  only  with  a small  portion 
of  this  intricate  subject,  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  genera! 
principles  have  been  sufficiently  illustrated)  so  as  to 
enable  him  to  deal  with  other  cases  as  they  come  before 
him. 


Plates  XXIV,  XXV,  XXVI,  XXVII,  XXVIII. 
TRACERY  WINDOWS. 


Tracery  Windows  are  of  the  most  extensive  variety, 
both  in  design  and  form,  and  require  no  little  considera- 
tion and  study  on  the  part  of  the  student.  The  correct 
carrying  out  of  the  designs  for  such  works  affords  valu- 
able evidence  of  the  mason’s  skill. 

Without  going  into  the  principles  governing  the  com- 
position and  design  of  tracery,  it  may  be  remarked  that, 
with  few  exceptions,  geometrical  tracery  is  based  upon 
the  combination  of  the  equilateral  triangle  with  the  poly- 
gon and  circle ; and  the  examples  here  given  will  mostly 
illustrate  this  particular  style. 

In  setting  out  tracery  windows  generally,  commence 
by  drawing  the  vertical  centre  line  of  window,  then  the 
springing  line  at  right  angles  to  the  same,  and  set  off 
the  span,  or  opening,  and  draw  segment  line  of  the 
arch.  Divide  the  span  for  small  openings,  and  draw 
in  the  mullions.  This  may  also  be  obtained  from  the 
plan  if  first  drawn.  Now  draw  in  the  construction  lines 
for  centres  of  tracery  to  the  required  design,  care  being 
taken  that  the  curves  must  properly  intersect  with  each 
other,  or  be  drawn  tangental,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
mouldings  which  form  the  mullion,  on  taking  a curved 
shape  in  the  tracery,  are  termed  monials. 

Gauge  on  from  the  centre  lines  of  tracery  last  drawn 
the  width  of  monial,  giving  the  lines  of  nosings,  fillets, 
splays,  &c.,  and  complete  the  window  by  drawing  the 
foliations,  eyes,  and  cusps. 

355 


356 


PLATE  XXIV. 


TRACERY  WINDOWS 


d, 

FIG  . I 


FIG.  3 


PLATE  XXV. 


357 


TRACERY 


WINDOWS 

FIC  . 5 


e 


FIG  4 


358 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


The  joints  of  all  tracery  windows  should  be  drawn  in 
to  radiating  lines  from  the  centres,  by  which  the  prin- 
cipal curves  of  monials  are  drawn;  this  is  not  always 
possible,  but  the  rule  should  be  borne  in  mind. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  the  moulds,  one  half  the 
window  only  is  necessary  to  be  set  out. 

Fig.  i.  Shows  the  constructional  lines  of  completed 
window  (Fig.  2).  The  equilateral  triangle  ABC, 
divided  into  four  similar  figures  d d d,  gives  the  centres 
for  the  tracery.  This  is  again  exemplified  in  Fig.  3, 
which  shows  the  trefoil,  the  centres  of  which  are  evi- 
dent, and  need  no  description. 

Fig.  4.  Shows  the  constructional  lines  of  circular 
window  (Fig.  5). 

To  construct  the  figure,  divide  the  diameter  into  four 
equal  parts,  as  b c d e,  and  with  c as  centre  and  b or  d 
as  radius,  describe  a circle,  and  inscribe  a regular  hexa- 
gon, intersecting  with  the  opposite  diameter  at  f g.  The 
points  of  intersection  will  give  one  half  of  the  centres 
of  tracery. 

On  the  diameter  at  f g,  as  a common  base,  construct 
the  two  equilateral  triangles  / g h and  f g j,  and  with  c 
as  centre,  and  h or  j the  apex,  as  radius,  describe  a cir- 
cle, and  inscribe  the  hexagon  h j k l m n,  or  produce 
the  equilateral  triangles,  cutting  the  circles  in  these  points. 
These  give  the  other  half  of  the  centres,  for  completing 
the  main  lines  of  tracery. 

Fig.  5.  Is  the  completed  window,  with  foliations, 
eyes,  and  cusps,  and  label  moulding. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  four  face  moulds,  with  a 
slight  modification  in  two  of  them,  will  work  all  the 
tracery  in  this  window. 

Fig.  6.  Shows  the  elevation  and  part  plan  of  win- 


PLATE  XXVI, 


359 


TRACERY  WINDOWS 


•c*v* 


•r  *«r* 


360 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


dow,  the  right-hand  half  in  elevation,  showing  construc- 
tional lines,  and  the  left  hand  the  completed  half  of  win- 
dow. 

This  will  be  understood  without  further  instruction 
than  is  afforded  by  the  illustration. 

Fig.  7.  Shows  the  elevation  and  part  plan  of  win- 
dow, the  right-hand  half  in  elevation  showing  construc- 
tional lines,  and  the  left-hand  the  completed  half  of  win- 
dow. 

The  geometrical  constructive  lines  are  not  so  marked 
or  apparent  in  this  window,  yet  it  has  a purely  geometri- 
cal expression,  the  trefoil  and  circle  predominating. 

This  example  has  been  chosen  to  illustrate  the  work- 
ing of  one  of  the  stones,  which  is  typical  of  the  work- 
ing of  each  of  the  others. 

Fig.  8.  Shows  face  mould  of  the  springer  A,  trans- 
ferred from  elevation  (Fig.  7).  B B are  section  moulds 
of  main  monials,  C is  section  mould  of  mullion,  or  bot- 
tom bed,  of  springer,  and  D is  section  mould  of  small 
monial;  this  applies  to  the  two  branch  joints. 

To  work  the  springer,  commence  by  working  a plane, 
as  a surface  of  operation,  and  on  this  scribe  in  the  face 
mould  A marking-in  the  nosings  a a b by  the  aid  of  a 
templet,  the  nosings  being  the  only  portion  of  the  plane 
not  cut  away.  Next  point  the  stone  roughly  to  shade  of 
the  face  mould,  and  then  take  it  to  a parallel  thickness, 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  section  mould  B or  C.  Now 
work  the  joints  through  square  from  the  face,  and  scribe 
in  joint  moulds  B D and  C on  their  respective  joints. 
Then  work  through  the  nosing  a a and  b>  and  boutel 
mouldings,  and  fillets,  and  sink  down  the  whole  of  the 
remainder  of  face  to  lower  nosing  c c c,  scribe  in  on 
each  side  of  nosing  the  skeleton  face  mould  (Fig.  9), 


PLATE  XXVII. 


361 


TRACERY  WINDOWS 


362 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


and  work  the  soffits  through  to  shape.  Sinkings  are 
now  made  for  the  several  mouldings,  the  eyes  of  cusps 
are  pierced,  and  the  stone  finished  to  its  correct  shape, 
templets  and  reverses  being  used  in  guidance. 

Fig.  9.  The  using  of  the  skeleton  mould,  here  illus- 
trated, saves  the  working  through  of  the  soffits,  from  the 
outside,  or  first  surface  of  operation. 

The  section  moulds  for  monials,  in  several  cases,  will 
require  a little  widening  out,  as  at  D,  and  these  may  be 
projected  from  the  face  mould.  The  reason  for  this  is, 
that  the  joints  are  not  always  on  a true  sectional  line. 

Fig.  10.  Shows  sketches  of  various  examples  of 
cusps,  which  require  no  explanation. 


PLATE  XXVIII. 


363 


SHE  TCH  OF  CUSPS 


Plates  XXIX,  XXX,  XXXI,  XXXII. 
GOTHIC  MOULDINGS. 

The  profiles  of  mouldings  here  given  are  indications 
of  the  various  styles  or  periods,  and  are  of  great  interest 
to  the  student  of  Masonry,  and  also  because  they  attest 
the  working  skill  of  the  mason. 

The  characteristics  generally  of  each  period  and  the 
dates  are  briefly  as  follows : — 

Norman,.  1066  to  1189. 

The  mouldings  consist  chiefly  of  chamfers,  round, 
and  quarter  round  members,  with  shallow  hollows,  the 
edge  roll  or  bead  being  the  principal  member.  These 
are  frequently  entirely  covered  with  ornament,  such  as 
the  chevron  or  zigzag,  the  billet,  the  lozenge,  the  double 
cone,  the  star,  the  pellet,  and  others,  producing  great 
richness  of  effect. 

Early  English , 1189  to  1300. 

In  this  period  the  mouldings  are  bold  and  deeply 
undercut,  and  generally  arranged  on  rectangular  planes ; 
they  are  composed  chiefly  of  the  bowtel  and  keel  mem- 
bers, with  a combination  of  fillets  and  deep  hollows  of 
irregular  curves,  resulting  in  a beautiful  effect  of  light 
and  shade.  The  curves  of  these  mouldings  are  easy  and 
graceful,  and  are  usually  drawn  by  hand,  the  compasses 
being  little  used. 

The  principal  ornament  of  these  mouldings  is  the  dog- 

364 


1 


GOTHIC  MOULDINGS  365 

tooth,  which  is  greatly  varied,  and  belongs  exclusively 
to  this  style. 

Decorated , 1300  to  1377. 

The  mouldings  in  this  style  are  bold  and  well  propor- 
tioned, and  arranged  on  rectangular  as  well  as  diagonal 
planes.  The  rounds  and  hollows  are  not  so  deeply  cut 
as  in  the  preceding  style,  the  hollows  being  segments 
of  circles,  the  deeper  hollows  being  confined  to  the  inner 
angles;  the  roll  moulding,  the  quarter  round,  and  wave 
mouldings  are  also  very  much  used  in  combination  of 
the  groups. 

The  ornament  is  chiefly  the  ball  flower,  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties,  and  the  four-leaved  or  diaper 
flower;  these  are  nearly  as  characteristic  of  the  Deco- 
rated style  as  the  tooth  ornament  is  of  the  Early  Eng- 
lish. 

Perpendicular,  13 77  to  154 7. 

This  style  is  characterized  by  mouldings  which  have 
large  and  shallow  members,  and  generally  a large  hollpw 
in  the  centre  of  each  group,  and  arranged  on  diagonal 
planes.  Another  feature  of  this  style  is  the  constant  use 
of  beads  of  three-quarters  of  a circle  and  also  flat  wave 
mouldings;  to  this  may  be  added  the  absence  of  fine 
detail. 

The  common  ornaments  are  the  Tudor  flower,  rose, 
and  fleur-de-lys  cresting,  an  example  of  the  last-named 
being  given  on  Plate  32. 


Plate  XXIX.  GOTHIC  MOULDINGS. 
PROFILES  OF  GOTHIC  MOULDINGS. 


Norman  Period,  1066  to  1189. 

1 to  5.  Cushion  caps  of  various  forms,  principally 
from  Peterborough  Cathedral. 

6 to  14.  Bases,  various. 

15.  Base  from  nave,  Workshop  Priory. 

16.  Arch  mould  from  transept,  Peterborough. 

1 7.  Arch  and  label  mould  from  nave,  Tutbury. 

18.  Arch  and  label  mould  from  nave,  Southwell. 

19.  Arch  mould  from  transept,  Peterborough. 

20.  Arch  and  label  from  mould  nave,  Workshop  Pri 
ory. 

2 1.  Arch  and  label  from  mould  nave,  Wenlock  Pri 
ory. 

22.  Arch  and  label  from  mould  transept,  Peterbor- 
ough. 

23.  Arch  and  label  with  various  enrichments. 

24  to  29.  Strings,  various. 

30.  The  sunk  star  ornament. 

31.  The  billet  ornament. 

32.  The  square  billet  ornament. 

33.  The  lozenge  ornament. 

34.  The  double  cone  ornament. 

35.  The  chevron  or  zigzag. 

36.  The  Beakhead. 

IA,  2A.  Ornament  in  caps,  Workshop  Priory. 

366 


PLATE  XXIX.  367 

NORMAN  PERIOD  1066  to  1189 


Plate  XXX.  GOTHIC  MOULDINGS. 


Early  English  Period , 1189  to  1300. 

I,  2,  3.  Caps  from  Westminster  Abbey,  Triforium. 

4 and  6.  Caps  from  Bolton  Abbey. 

5,  7,  8.  Caps,  various. 

9.  Caps  from  Carlisle  Cathedral. 

10.  Base  from  Carlisle  Cathedral. 

II.  Base  from  Ely  Cathedral. 

12.  Base  from  Peterborough  Cathedral. 

13.  Base  from  Cowling,  Kent 

14.  Base  from  Lincoln  Cathedral. 

15  to  19.  Bases,  various. 

20.  Base  from  Warmington,  N.  Hants. 

21.  Base  from  Durham  Cathedral. 

22.  Base  from  Lincoln  Cathedral,  Arcade. 

23.  Base  from  Bolton  Abbey. 

24.  25.  Arch  and  label  moulds,  Warmington,  N. 
Hants. 

26.  Arch  and  label  moulds,  Carlisle  Cathedral. 

27.  Jamb  mould. 

28.  Arch  and  label  moulds,  Warmington,  Doorway. 

29.  Arch  mould,  Lincoln  Cathedral,  Arcade.  . 

30.  Arch  mould,  Longham  Church,  S.  Transept. 

31.  Arch  mould,  Beaulieu,  Hants. 

32.  Arch  mould. 

33.  34,  35-  Bowtel  mouldings. 

36,  37.  Keel  mouldings. 

38  to  44.  String  mouldings,  various. 

368 


PLATE  XXX.  369 

_ EAR  LY_  ENGLISH-PERIOD II  89"ro  1300  _ 


37° 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


45,  46.  Rib  mouldings. 
47,  48.  Mullion. 

49.  Scroll  moulding. 

50.  Roll  and  triple  fillet. 

51.  Dog-tooth  ornament. 

52.  Crocket  ornament. 


Plate  XXXI.  GOTHIC  MOULDINGS. 

Decorated  Period , 1300  to  13 77. 

1.  Cap  from  Irthlingborough. 

2 to  8.  Caps,  various. 

9 to  14.  Bases,  various. 

15.  Mullion. 

1 6.  Jamb  mould. 

1 7.  Arch  mould  with  ornament  of  ball  flower  and 
four-leaved  or  diaper  flower. 

18.  19,  20.  Arch  and  label  moulds. 

2 1.  Arch  mould  from  Lichfield,  Choir. 

22.  Arch  mould  from  Stafford,  Nave. 

23.  Jamb  mould  from  Holbeach  Church,  Lincolnshire. 
24  to  30.  String  and  label  moulds,  various. 

31.  Triple  filleted  roll. 

32  to  35.  Varieties  of  wave  mouldings. 

36.  Ball-flower  ornament,  three  varieties. 


PLATE  XXXI. 


30 


Plate  XXXII.  GOTHIC  MOULDINGS. 


Perpendicular  Period , 1377  to  154 7. 

1 to  7.  Caps,  various. 

8 to  15.  Bases,  various. 

16.  Arch  mould  and  label  from  Chester  Cathedral 

17.  Arch  mould  and  label  from  Newark,  Nave. 

18.  Arch  mould  and  label. 

19.  Jamb  mould. 

20.  Pier  mould  from  St.  Stephen’s  Cloisters,  West- 
minster. 

21.  Wave  moulding. 

22.  Wave  moulding. 

23.  Mullion,  St.  Stephen’s  Cloisters. 

24.  Rib  moulding,  St.  Stephen’s  Cloisters. 

25.  Buttress  moulding. 

26  to  33.  Strings  and  labels,  various. 

34.  Sill  mould,  Christchurch. 

35.  Cresting  ornament. 


372 


PLATE  XXXII. 


Plate  XXXIII.  GRECIAN  MOULDINGS. 


The  profiles  of  these  mouldings  are  composed  of  lines 
of  varying  curvature,  and  mostly  correspond  to  conic 
sections,  embracing  the  hyperbola,  parabola,  and  ellipse. 
It  is  considered,  however,  that  they  were  drawn  by  hand, 
and  not  obtained  by  any  mechanical  method. 

The  examples  here  shown  are  taken  chiefly  from  the 
works  of  Sir  William  Chambers  and  Inwood. 

1.  Section  of  the  Doric  cornice  from  the  Parthenon. 

2.  Plan  of  external  angle  of  ditto,  looking  up,  show- 
ing the  mutules  and  honeysuckle  enrichment. 

3.  Section  of  Ionic  cornice  from  the  Erectheium. 

4.  Section  of  Ionic  cornice  from  the  Erectheium. 

5.  Doric  cap  from  Samothrace  (Hyperbola). 

6.  Doric  cap  from  the  Theseum  (Parabola). 

7.  Doric  cap  from  Selinus  (Ellipse). 

8.  Ionic  base  from  the  Temple  on  the  Ilyssus. 

9.  Ionic  base  from  Minerva  Polias. 

10.  Ionic  base  from  Prienne. 

11.  Corinthian  base  from  Monument  of  Lvsicrates. 

12.  Capital  of  Ante  from  Erectheium. 

13.  Capital  of  Ante  from  Erectheium. 

14.  Capital  of  Ante  from  Erectheium. 

15.  Egg  and  tongue  enrichment. 

16.  Annulets  or  neckings  to  Doris  caps. 

Note.  It  may  be  here  observed  that  the  columns  of 
the  Greek  Doric  have  no  base,  but  are  planted  direct  on 
the  square  step  which  is  a feature  of  this  particular  style 
of  building. 


374 


PLATE.  XXXIII. 

CRECIAN  .MOULDINGS 


375 


Plate  XXXIV.  ROMAN  MOULDINGS. 


These  mouldings  are  all  derived  from  Greek  originals, 
but  without  their  refinement  of  outline,  and  in  artistic 
beauty  are  far  below  their  predecessors.  The  profiles  are 
in  most  cases  composed  of  segments  of  circles. 

1.  Elevation  of  Doric  cornice. 

2.  Plan  of  external  angle  of  ditto,  looking  up,  show 
ing  the  modillions. 

3.  Elevation  of  Doric  cap. 

4.  Section  of  capping  to  Doric  pedestal. 

5.  Section  of  Architrave. 

6.  Section  of  Architrave. 

7.  Section  of  pedestal  capping. 

8.  Section  of  pedestal  capping. 

9.  Section  of  Tuscan  base. 

10.  Section  of  Doric  base. 

11.  Section  of  Corinthian  base. 

12.  Section  of  Composite  base. 

13.  Section  of  pedestal  plinth. 

14.  Section  of  pedestal  plinth. 

15.  Baluster  (enriched). 

16.  Baluster. 

17.  Baluster. 


376 


PLATE  XXXIV. 


377 


MASONRY  ESTIMATING  AND  QUANTITY 
SURVEYING. 

Estimating.  In  regard  to  measuring  and  estimating 
the  values  of  masonry,  it  will  be  necessary  to  state,  by 
way  of  preliminary,  a few  particulars  which  are  essential 
to  good  and  sound  estimating. 

The  advantage  to  the  mason  in  estimating  for  his  own 
trade  is,  that  he  knows  the  various  processes  the  stone  has 
to  go  through,  together  with  the  different  labors.  In 
order  to  do  this  in  the  proper  way,  he  should  be  well 
versed  in  the  science  of  construction  as  applied  to  build- 
ings, and  competent  to  read  any  drawing ; and  it  will  be 
better  still  if  he  be  also  qualified  to  prepare  any  detail 
drawing  in  connection  with  the  work,  as  by  this  means 
he  will  be  able  to  discover  any  particulars  that  relate  to 
the  practical  working  of  the  stone,  which  otherwise 
might  escape  his  notice.  Again,  the  more  thorough  the 
mason  is  as  a draughtsman,  the  more  thorough  he  is  as 
an  estimator. 

The  first  step  in  connection  with  estimating,  after  the 
drawings  have  been  consulted , is  to  carefully  read  and 
digest  the  specification,  and  to  ascertain  if  there  is  any 
hidden  work  which  is  not  shown  on  the  drawings — in 
other  words,  where  to  expect  and  where  to  look  for  all 
stonework  not  clearly  shown  or  described.  The  mason 
should  also  know  how  the  stonework  butts  against  the 
different  materials,  the  various  notchings,  rebates,  &c., 
against  girders,  brick,  wood,  &c. ; and  in  general  he 
should  satisfy  himself  that  he  understands  from  the  re^ 

378 


MASONRY  ESTIMATING 


379 

quirements  of  the  drawings  and  specifications  exactly  how 
the  stonework  should  be  cut  and  set  in  the  wall. 

Next,  but  not  least,  is  the  mathematical  qualification 
necessary  for  the  mason,  which  in  general  is  simply 
arithmetical,  although  there  are  times  when  his  knowl- 
edge of  practical  geometry,  as  well  as  plane  trigonometry, 
will  help  him  to  advantage.  Lastly,  a neat  and  method- 
ical way  of  “taking  off  quantity”  should  be  cultivated, 
and  also  to  figure  the  various  items  correctly  from  such 
data  as  may  be  obtained  from  the  shop  records  of  labor, 
which  consist  of  a series  of  ascertained  values  of  actual 
work  done.  When  there  is  any  intricate  or  new  work  to 
which  the  shop  records  have  no  reference,  the  mason’s 
practical  experience  and  judgment  will  enable  him  to 
determine  the  values,  and  thus  the  approximate  cost  may 
be  obtained. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that,  to  be  successful  in 
estimating,  it  is  necessary  above  all  to  have  order  and 
method,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  these  gifts  the  mason 
is  in  the  right  way  of  becoming  master  of  the  principles 
of  his  craft,  in  this  particular  branch. 

Quantity  Surveying.  There  is  perhaps  a greater 
diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  system  to  be  adopted 
in  estimating  for  stonework  than  is  to  be  found  in  any 
other  branch  of  the  building  trade.  This  arises  from  the 
fact  that  masonry  generally  is  in  itself  very  complex,  and 
that  no  two  buildings  arc  alike  in  style,  material,  or  fin- 
ish. These  differences  of  systems,  however,  are  being 
gradually  narrowed  down  by  custom  and  usage,  and  one 
might  almost  say  that  the  only  difference — certainly  the 
greatest — is  the  description  of  the  labor  on  stonework. 

At  one  time  half-sawing  was  taken  on  all  the  six  sides 
of  the  cube,  and  any  labor  expended  on  these  sides  or 


380 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


faces  was  added ; but  with  the  system  of  measuring  being 
generally  adopted,  half-sawing  is  ignored  except  for  the 
back  of  the  stone  built  into  the  wall,  it  being  assumed 
that  all  other  labors  include  the  price  of  sawing. 

Another  method  is  to  take  out  the  stone  including 
labor,  and  to  divide  it  into  a few  main  items,  each  com- 
posed of  stone  upon  which  the  labor  is  similar,  and  giving 
sketches  to  the  more  ornate  parts,  as  “stone  and  labor  in 
chamfered  jambs”;  “ditto  in  moulded  ditto”;  “ditto  in 
chamfered  plinths,  and  strings” ; “ditto  in  arcading,”  &c. 

Yet  another  method,  instead  of  wading  through  the 
quantities,  is  to  work  out  an  average  block  of  each  kind 
of  work  upon  the  other  and  more  correct  system,  and  re- 
duce the  cost  thus  found  to  a set  of  prices  “per  cubic 
foot.”  This  is  a somewhat  haphazard  way  of  estimating, 
and  not  to  be  recommended.  It  may  save  time  and  facil- 
itate progress,  but  it  is  equally  undeniable  that  it  is  as  un- 
certain in  results  as  careless  in  process. 

The  method,  therefore,  adopted  here  is  to  measure  net 
the  cubical  block  of  stone,  and  take  all  the  labors  upon  it 
separately. 

In  taking  off  quantities,  it  is  essential  to  take  them  in 
the  following  order,  viz.,  length,  breadth,  and  depth 
(height).  This  plan  will  invariably  prevent  confusion, 
and  it  also  admits  of  after-identifications  of  dimensions 
if  necessary. 

In  measuring  cube  stone  per  foot  cube,  the  stone  is 
measured  the  net  size  of  a rectangular  block,  which  just 
encloses  the  finished  stone.  When  any  fraction  of  an 
inch  occurs,  call  it  another  inch,  a for  instance  i ft. 
424  in.  by  1 1 /4  in.  by  9 J4  in.  should  be  called  1 ft.  5 in. 
by  1 ft.  o in.  by  10  in. 

Add  to  the  price  of  the  stone  the  labor  of  setting,  hoist- 
ing, and  scaffolding  per  foot  cube ; and  so  describe. 


MASONRY  ESTIMATING  381 

State  in  all  cases  how  stonework  is  finished,  whether 
tooled,  chiselled,  rubbed,  dragged,  combed,  &c. 

If  stone  is  hoisted  to  a height  of  40  ft.  it  is  kept  sepa- 
rate, and  so  stated,  and  also  in  heights  of  20  ft.  above 
same,  as  40  ft.  to  60  ft.,  60  ft.  to  80  ft.,  &c. 

This  course  is  sometimes  modified,  as  when  a well- 
defined  line  occurs  a little  under  or  over  the  limit ; the 
height,  however,  should  be  stated. 

All  stonework  up  to  3 in.  in  thickness  is  taken  by  the 
foot  super,  and  all  labors  on  same  described. 

If  any  of  the  stones  are  above  6 ft.  in  length,  take  the 
cubical  contents  and  call  it  scantling. 

Beds  and  Joints  per  foot  super  are  described  as  “one 
face  measured  for  two.” 

It  is  usual  to  take  a bed  and  a joint  to  each  stone, 
which  will  be  equal  to  half-bed  or  joint  on  four  out  of  the 
six  surfaces  of  the  block — that  is,  the  top,  bottom,  and 
two  sides.  Sometimes  beds  and  joints  and  preparatory 
faces  are  omitted,  and  the  stone  described  as  including  all 
plain  beds  and  joints,  and  preparatory  faces.  When  this 
course  is  adopted  every  other  labor  is  measured  as  it 
finishes. 

If  the  drawings  do  not  indicate  the  joints,  as  in  cor- 
nices, strings,  plinths,  capping,  &c.,  take  a joint  to  every 
3 ft.  in  length. 

An  average  of  beds  and  joints  to  each  cubic  foot  of 
stone  is  in  Modern  Classic  ij4  ft.  super;  Gothic,  2 ft. 
super. 

The  labor  to  back  of  stone  is  generally  described  as 
half-sawn  or  drafted  and  measured  by  the  foot  super. 

Sunk  Beds  and  Joints  per  foot  super,  described  as  “all 
measured,”  are  taken  to  all  beds  and  joints,  when  sunk 
below  the  general  surface. 


382 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Circular  Beds  and  Joints  per  foot  super,  described  as 
“all  measured,”  are  taken  to  all  beds  and  joints,  when 
sunk  below  the  general  surface,  as  in  arch  stones,  and  may 
be  either  concave  or  convex.  The  extrados  and  injrados 
of  an  ordinary  arch  are  an  illustration. 

Circular  Sunk  Joint  per  foot  super,  described  as  “all 
measured.”  These  are  joints  sunk  below  the  circular 
face,  as  in  the  reveals  and  rebates  of  arches ; when 
stopped,  state  so  and  keep  it  separate. 

Plain  Face  or  Plain  Work  per  foot  super.  When 
dressed  to  an  even  finished  surface,  either  tooled,  rubbed, 
or  dragged  as  may  be  required ; this  includes  also  prepar- 
atory faces,  as  to  tracery  windows,  &c. 

Sunk  Face  per  foot  super,  taken  to  all  faces  below  the 
general  surface,  as  in  panels,  weatherings,  &c.  When  the 
sinking  cannot  be  worked  straight  through  the  stone  it  is 
called  “Sunk  face  stopped.” 

Sunk  face  not  exceeding  3 in.  wide  is  measured  per 
foot  run  and  the  width  stated. 

Rough  Sunk  Face  per  foot  super  is  taken  to  the  gen- 
eral surface  of  all  mouldings  over  3 in.  below  the  general 
surface. 

Circular  Face  per  foot  super,  and  describe  as  “all 
measured,”  is  taken  to  surfaces  that  are  convex,  as  in 
shafts  of  columns,  &c. ; state  if  stopped,  and  keep  sepa- 
rate. 

Circular  Face  Sunk  per  foot  super,  and  describe  as  “all 
measured,”  to  all  surfaces  that  are  concave,  such  as 
soffits  of  arches,  &c. ; state  if  stopped,  and  keep  separate. 

Circular  Circular  Face  per  foot  super,  and  describe  as 
“all  measured,”  to  all  surfaces  that  are  circular  on  plan 
and  elevation,  such  as  convex  surfaces  of  domes,  spheres, 
&c. ; state  if  stopped,  and  keep  separate. 


MASONRY  ESTIMATING 


383 


Circular  Circular  Face  Sunk  per  foot  super,  and  de- 
scribe as  “all  measured/’  to  the  concave  surfaces  of 
domes  or  niche  heads ; state  if  stopped,  and  keep  separate. 

Moulded  Work  per  foot  super,  and  describe  as  “all 
measured”;  taken  to  the  profiles  of  all  mouldings  in 
strings,  cornices,  caps,  and  bases,  &c.  Girth  the  mould- 
ings to  get  at  the  superficial  area. 

Mouldings  not  exceeding  6 in.  in  girth,  measure  per 
foot  run  and  state  girth.  Mitres  in  mouldings  to  be  num- 
bered; these  are  sometimes  taken  (for  pricing)  as  equal 
1 ft.  run  of  the  moulding  to  which  they  belong. 

Where  mitres  occur  in  mouldings,  measure  to  the  ex- 
treme length  of  the  nosing  for  running  length. 

Mouldings  not  exceeding  9 in.  in  length,  take  as  short 
lengths  and  keep  separate. 

Stopped  Ends,  numbered,  stating  girth  of  moulding. 

Ashlar  is  sometimes  measured  per  foot  super;  state 
average  thickness  and  how  the  face  is  finished,  whether 
rubbed,  tooled,  chiselled,  or  dragged ; if  bond  stones  state 
their  size,  the  proportion  of  bond  stones  to  the  area  of 
wall  face,  also  that  the  ashlar  includes  all  labors  to  beds 
and  joints.  When  backed  up  by  brickwork,  state  it,  and 
keep  brickwork  separate  and  describe  as  extra  only  in 
backing  to  stone  ashlar. 

The  other  method  is  to  measure  the  stone  by  foot  cube, 
and  all  labors  separately  per  foot  super,  as  before  de- 
scribed. 

Boasting,  per  foot  super,  where  over  6 in.  girth.  This 
is  the  preparatory  or  rough  dressing  in  outline  for  carv- 
ing. 

Carving.  The  value  of  this  so  much  depends  upon 
the  ornate  quality  of  the  work,  that  it  is  usual  to  obtain 
an  estimate  from  the  carver. 


384 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Measure  spandrel  steps  (when  two  are  cut  out  of  one 
block)  the  extreme  width  from  the  nose  of  the  tread  to 
the  acute  end  of  the  angle  by  half  the  riser,  taking  from 
top  of  tread  (front  of  nosing)  to  the  acute  end  of  angle 
downward. 

When  the  stooling  is  left  on  the  end  for  pinning  into 
the  wall,  the  steps  must  be  measured  solid. 

Measure  winders  the  extreme  length,  including  the 
wall  hold,  by  the  mean  width  and  by  the  whole  height. 

The  labor  to  spandrel  steps  may  be  taken  as  plain  work 
to  tread  and  soffit,  sunk  moulded  work  to  riser  and  quoin 
per  foot  super,  rebates  (front  and  back)  at  per  foot  run, 
mitres  numbered. 

When  the  soffits  are  moulded  the  girth  must  be  taken, 
and  described  as  sunk  moulded  work.' 

The  soffit  of  winders  to  be  taken  as  circular  sunk  face. 

Dandings  per  foot  super;  measure  the  length  and  the 
width,  adding  the  bearing  on  the  walls;  state  the  thick- 
ness and  whether  tooled  or  rubbed  on  one  or  both 
sides ; measure  the  cutting  and  pinning  into  walls  by  the 
foot  run;  if  above  30  ft.  super  in  one  stone  state  such, 
and  keep  separate,  being  more  valuable. 

Window  Sills  per  foot  run;  measure  the  lengths,  giving 
the  width  and  thickness ; state  if  quarry-worked,  tooled, 
rubbed,  or  sunk,  and  if  throated. 

Coping  per  foot  run  ; collect  the  lengths  ; state  the  thick- 
ness and  width,  and  whether  tooled  or  rubbed,  if  parallel, 
feather-edged  or  saddle  back,  and  if  throated;  also  if 
bedded  in  mortar  or  cement. 

Curbs  per  foot  run ; measure  the  lengths,  state  the  size 
and  how  worked;  number  all  mortises  for  iron  railing 
and  standards,  giving  the  size  and  depth. 

Dentils  to  cornices,  numbered,  with  the  sizes  and  spaces 


MASONRY  ESTIMATING 


385 


between  each;  state  whether  fixed  in  a level  or  raking 
line ; number  the  enriched  pendants  to  angle  dentils,  giv- 
ing the  sizes,  with  sketch. 

Balusters  moulded,  numbered,  give  size,  description, 
and  sketch;  state  if  turned  or  worked  square;  number 
the  mortises,  with  sizes  and  depths. 

Consoles,  numbered,  give  proper  description  of  the 
moulded  front,  caps,  &c. ; state  the  enrichments,  give  the 
size  and  sketch. 

Capitals  to  pilasters  and  columns  (carved),  to  be  num- 
bered ; give  the  sizes  with  full  description  of  the  moulded 
and  enriched  parts,  and  sketch. 

Rebate,  or  moulding  not  exceeding  6 in.  girth,  per  foot 
run. 

Throat  per  foot  run. 

Joggles,  state  what  kind,  per  foot  run. 

Chamfer,  not  exceeding  3 in.  wide,  per  foot  run. 

Groove  for  flashings,  per  foot  run. 

Groove  for  lead  lights,  and  pointing  in  cement  on  both 
sides,  per  foot  run. 

Holes  and  perforations,  numbered,  stating  size  and 
thickness  of  stones. 

Mortises  and  Dowels,  numbered,  and  state  if  copper, 
gun-metal,  lead,  iron  or  pebble  dowels,  and  if  run  in 
cement,  or  sulphur,  &c. 

Cramps,  numbered ; state  if  in  copper,  gun-metal,  slate, 
or  iron;  give  size  and  weight. 

Chimney-pieces.  Usually  a provisional  sum  is  allowed, 
otherwise  they  are  numbered,  stating  size  of  opening, 
width  of  jambs  and  shelf,  and  how  finished,  if  flat  or 
boxed,  and  whether  stone  or  marble. 


BUILDING  STONES. 


The  importance  of  choosing  a good  building  stone  for 
durability  is  well  known,  but  unfortunately  too  little  at- 
tention is  generally  given  to  the  selection  of  the  stone  in 
order  to  obtain  a perfect  structure.  Yet,  however  care- 
ful the  selection  may  be,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
there  are  no  stones  of  any  kind,  whether  they  are  the 
hardest  and  most  intractable  of  the  syenites  or  granite, 
or  the  softest  lime  or  sandstone,  that  are  not  perishable 
in  a greater  or  lesser  degree  in  the  course  of  time. 

The  physical  forces  and  agencies,  within  and  without, 
which  produce  this  effect  are  apparently  invisible,  al- 
though always  present,  each  working  in  its  own  way, 
with  the  same  result,  that  the  stones  begin  to  disinte- 
grate and  gradually  fall  away  into  dust. 

A high  authority  has  observed  that  “in  modern  Europe, 
and  particularly  in  Great  Britain,  there  is  scarcely  a pub- 
lic building  of  recent  date  which  will  be  in  existence  a 
thousand  years  hence.  Many  of  the  most  splendid  works 
of  modern  architecture  are  hastening  to  decay  in  what 
may  be  justly  called  the  infancy  of  their  existence,  if 
compared  with  the  dates  of  public  buildings  that  remain 
in  Italy,  in  Greece,  in  Egypt,  and  the  East.” 

Should  this  be  t~ue,  it  is  a serious  outlook,  and  it  is 
therefore  obvious  that  the  mason  should  have  a full  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  general  structure  of  rocks,  as 
well  as  of  the  situations  where  the  best  materials  may 
be  obtained,  the  composition  of  the  stone  he  uses,  and 
the  destructive  agencies  that  it  will  have  to  face,  so  as  to 

386 


BUILDING  STONES 


387 

direct  his  choice  in  the  selection  of  particular  stones,  and 
enable  him  to  estimate  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from 
their  proper  application  for  building  purposes. 

He  should  also  know  whether  the  material  is  good  or 
poor,  whether  it  is  perfectly  adapted  for  the  particular 
work  he  has  in  hand,  how  it  should  be  handled  to  pro- 
duce the  best  results  and  fulfill  the  conditions  of  economy, 
utility  and  good  workmanship. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  a bad  selection  of  stone 
cannot  be  rectified  when  once  used  in  a building,  and  is 
a lasting  testimony  to  want  of  care  and  experience,  and 
that  a good  selection  remains  a permanent  record  for 
posterity. 

In  order  to  identify  a good  stone,  the  mason  must  use 
his  powers  of  observation.  Examine  carefully  a building 
which  has  stood  the  wear  of  time,  and  which  is  subjected 
to  a similar  atmosphere  to  that  of  the  proposed  new 
building;  note  its  general  appearance  and  its  condition 
as  to  soundness;  should  tool  marks  be  visible,  they  can 
generally  be  accepted  as  a good  sign. 

Next  find  out  where  the  stone  was  quarried,  examine 
carefully  the  various  beds  in  the  quarry,  and  from  what 
stratum  the  stone  has  been  obtained ; note  the  weathering 
of  exposed  surfaces  in  the  older  portion  of  the  quarry, 
and  learn  which  part  is  liable  to  decay  first,  and  the  con- 
ditions under  which  it  does  so. 

Take  every  precaution  to  ensure  getting  the  stone  from 
a sound  and  compact  bed,  and  one  that  is  easily  wrought 
and  convertible. 

It  should,  however,  be  recollected  that  most  build- 
ing stones  last  longest  in  the  particular  locality  in  which 
they  are  found;  and  that  the  same  quality  of  stone  which 
stands  well  externally  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  quarry, 


388' 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ofttimes  goes  rapidly  to  decay  when  fixed  in  another  part 
of  the  country. 

Chemical  tests  and  analyses,  to  determine  the  quality 
of  a building  stone  for  durability,  are  admitted  by  prac- 
tical men  to  be  somewhat  unreliable.  The  processes 
which  are  successful  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist  are 
generally  of  little  value  when  brought  into  practical  use ; 
for  chemical  analysis  will  only  give  the  constituents,  and 
microscopical  analysis  the  physical  construction  of  a 
stone ; and  neither  has  as  yet  been  proved  to  have  any  di- 
rect relation  to  its  weathering  quality. 

And  although  stones  have  been  subjected  to  severe 
tests  in  the  laboratory — such  as  being  dissolved  in  va- 
rious acids,  saturated  with  salts,  ground  into  semi-trans- 
parent discs,  disintegrated,  pulverized,  baked  and  boiled, 
and  treated  in  various  other  fashions — yet  none  of  these 
processes  have  as  yet  furnished  sufficient  data  by  which 
a correct  judgment  or  estimate  can  be  formed  as  to  the 
weathering  properties  of  any  stone. 

In  the  foregoing  remarks  there  is  no  wish  to  depreciate 
or  disparage  the  true  value  of  tests  by  chemical  analysis, 
but  rather  the  contrary.  These,  however,  should  be  con- 
fined to  ascertaining  the  constituent  or  component  parts 
of  the  stone ; its  cementing  material ; the  absorption  of 
water,  which  gives  a fair  indication  of  the  power  of  a 
stone  to  resist  rain  and  frost;  the  subjecting  of  the  stone 
to  a freezing  temperature  and  ascertaining  the  weight 
lost  from  the  sample ; the  microscopic  test,  which  is  use- 
ful in  determining  the  homogeneity  of  its  structure,  and 
others. 

With  regard  to  the  crushing  strength  of  stone,  this  is 
always  in  excess  of  requirements,  and  is  to  be  considered 
as  unimportant. 


BUILDING  STONES 


389 


It  should,  however,  be  stated  that  there  is  no  detail  in 
connection  with  stone  that  the  mason  should  not  be 
familiar  with.  By  this  means  he  will  be  able  to  remedy 
defects  in  existing  work,  suggest  improvements,  and 
build  to  greater  advantage  for  the  future. 

The  following  characteristics  are  therefore  important 
to  be  remembered  and  weighed  in  the  choice  of  a build- 
ing stone : 

Weathering  properties. 

Seasoning. 

Appearance. 

Porosity  and  absorption. 

Natural  bed. 

Facility  for  working. 

Compactness  and  weight. 

Agents  of  destruction. 

Weathering.  The  weathering  power  of  a stone  is 
dependent  upon  its  physical  structure,  its  composition 
and  the  nature  of  the  atmosphere  in  which  it  is  placed. 
The  most  destructive  agent  that  the  stone  has  to  contend 
against  is  rain,  or  a moist  atmosphere. 

The  air  of  towns  is  charged  in  a greater  or  lesser 
degree  with  carbonic  acid,  and  in  manufacturing  towns  it 
also  contains  quantities  of  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric 
acids.  These  acids  are  dissolved  by  the  rain,  which  pene- 
trates the  stone  more  or  less  according  to  its  physical 
structure,  and  combines  with  the  constituents  of  the 
stone,  causing  it  to  ultimately  crumble  away. 

A stone  which  may  be  sufficiently  durable  when  laid 
beneath  water,  as  in  piers  of  bridges,  docks,  quay  walls, 
&c.,  may  not  be  so  when  kept  alternately  wet  and  dry  by 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide,  or  when  wholly  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  A somewhat  porous  sand- 


390 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


stone,  for  instance,  may  do  well  when  kept  constantly 
under  water;  but  the  same  stone  when  exposed  to  the 
weather,  more  particularly  in  a climate  subject  to  frost, 
might  disintegrate  and  crumble  away. 

Stones  which  are  formed  of  particles  of  sand  cemented 
together  by  different  substances,  the  cementing  matter 
being  sometimes  silicious,  at  others  calcareous,  and  at 
others,  again,  formed  of  oxide  of  iron — each  of  these 
weathers  in  a different  way.  In  the  first  case,  the  stone 
would  not  materially  suffer  from  the  chemical  action  of 
atmospheric  influences  upon  it;  while  in  the  second,  rain- 
water containing  carbonic  acid  would  tend  to  dissolve  the 
calcareous  matter,  and  deprive  the  sand  of  its  cement; 
and  in  the  third,  the  action  of  atmospheric  influences 
would  tend  to  render  the  material  unsightly  by  staining 
it  with  iron  rust. 

Buildings  having  their  face  exposed  to  the  prevailing 
(south-west)  winds  and  rain  are  generally  those  in  which 
signs  of  decay  to  any  extent  first  appear;  also  the  parts 
that  are  in  the  shade,  such  as  the  bed  mould  of  cornices, 
underside  of  strings,  sills,  &c.  These  seldom  get  the  wet 
dried  out  of  them,  and  consequently  decay  first. 

Seasoning.  Stones  are  often  valued  because  they  are 
easily  wrought  when  first  taken  from  the  quarry,  and 
subsequently  become  harder  when  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere ; and  this  quality  arises  from  the  chemical 
change  which  takes  place  on  the  evaporation  of  the  water 
contained  in  the  stone  when  forming  part  of  the  natural 
rock. 

The  old  masons — and  “there  were  giants  in  those  days” 
— were  very  particular  about  the  seasoning  of  the  rough 
stone  blocks  before  using,  and  each  block  as  it  came  from 
the  quarry  was  placed  under  cover  from  the  rain,  and  in- 


BUILDING  STONES 


391 


stead  of  being  laid  flat  on  the  ground,  was  tilted  up  or 
inclined  upon  one  of  its  corners  to  enable  the  quarry  sap 
to  drain  out.  Its  position  also  allowed  a free  access  of 
air  to  play  round  the  block,  which  facilitated  its  drying. 
This  process  was  carefully  watched,  and  if  any  latent 
defect  appeared  during  the  drying  the  block  was  rejected. 

The  operation  of  seasoning  the  stone  took  several 
months  before  any  work  could  be  commenced  upon  or 
with  it,  and  it  is  admitted  that  this  method  would  add 
to  the  cost ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  believed  that  the 
money  would  be  well  spent  if  this  precaution  should 
prevent  the  wasting  of  such  stones  by  atmospheric  influ- 
ences, which  soon  act  on  the  surface  of  a newly-quarried 
stone. 

Again,  stone  that  is  quarried  one  day  and  built  into  the 
wall  the  next  is  in  a “green”  state,  and  is  not  in  condi- 
tion. It  is  at  its  weakest;  its  pores  are  open,  and  ready 
to  absorb  not  only  moisture  but  deleterious  agents  which 
tend  to  its  destruction. 

It  is  well  known  to  every  mason  that  work  on  a stone 
that  has  lain  by  for  some  time  is  very  different  from  what 
is  obtained  on  one  fresh  from  the  quarry,  the  former 
being  the  hardest  and  toughest,  a fact  which  of  itself  is 
regarded  as  sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  the  course 
recommended — namely,  to  thoroughly  season  the  stone 
before  using. 

Appearance.  The  stone  which  holds  its  color  best 
will,  as  a rule,  be  the  most  desirable  to  use,  and  this  fea- 
ture is  also  a good  guide  as  to  its  durability.  The  value 
of  a good  color  or  combination  of  colors  is  well  known, 
and  a judicious  placing  of  each  color  where  its  particular 
qualities  will  best  serve  the  design  produces  a pleasing 
effect  in  a building.  The  colors  to  choose  from  are  very 


392 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


numerous,  and  in  all  gradations,  and  a discreet  choice  of 
these  will  give  a general  effectiveness  of  appearance 
when  the  structure  in  which  they  are  utilized  has  been 
completed. 

Porosity  and  Absorption.  All  stones  are  porous  more 
or  less,  and  those  which  readily  absorb  moisture  should 
not  be  used  for  the  external  exposed  portion  of  public 
buildings,  as  when  frosts  occur  the  freezing  of  the  water 
on  the  wet  surface  continually  peels  off  the  latter,  and 
eventually  destroys  the  ornamental  and  carved  work 
upon  it. 

This,  however,  is  not  a universal  rule,  as  although  a 
stone  may  be  very  porous  and  absorbent,  it  may  also  be 
extremely  durable;  its  durability  depending  upon  the 
cementing  substance  which  holds  the  grains  together 
being  strong  enough  to  resist  the  physical  forces  acting 
upon  the  stone,  such  as  the  rain,  frost,  and  wind. 

The  wind  in  some  instances  acts  deleteriously,  as  when 
it  drives  the  rain  with  more  or  less  force  into  the  pores 
of  the  stone,  and  again  when  it  carries  away  loose  par- 
ticles which  have  been  dislodged  by  other  means ; but,  on 
the  whole,  the  effect  of  the  action  of  the  wind  is  to  en- 
hance the  durability  of  the  stone  by  drying  out  the  mois- 
ture and  thus  assisting  its  lasting  powers. 

Natural  Bed.  All  worked  stones,  with  few  excep- 
tions, should  be  fixed  on  their  natural  bed — that  is,  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  position  they  held  before  being 
quarried — for  set  in  this  manner  they  are  most  durable. 

In  arches,  the  bed  or  (what  is  the  same  in  effect)  the 
laminae  of  the  stone  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
thrust,  or  as  near  as  may  be  parallel  to  the  radiating 
joints  of  the  arch  stones.  For  cornices,  the  stones  are 
better  edge-bedded,  except  the  quoin  blocks,  which 


BUILDING  STONES 


393 

should  be  specially-selected  stones  and  laid  on  their  nat- 
ural bed. 

The  laminae  of  the  stone  are  in  some  cases  so  obvious, 
that  the  natural  bed  is  easily  determined;  in  other  in- 
stances, a good  deal  of  practical  experience  is  required  to 
determine  the  way  of  the  bed.  In  the  oolitic  series,  small 
shells  are  sometimes  visible,  and  faint  streaks  of  earthy 
matter;  these  should  always  be  parallel  to  the  bed,  and 
are  seen  better  when  the  stone  is  wetted,  but  it  requires 
an  observant  eye  to  detect  them.  In  the  absence  of  these 
marks,  the  mason  is  often  guided  by  the  free  working  of 
the  stone. 

Facility  for  Working.  This  is  an  important  factor 
as  regards  cost,  some  stones  being  so  hard,  and  therefore 
so  difficult  to  cut  and  dress,  that  it  hardly  pays  to  quarry 
them  for  building  purposes.  Where  ornamental  work — 
such  as  fine  mouldings  or  carvings — is  required,  a com- 
pact stone  of  even  grain  should  be  selected,  free  from 
flaws,  shakes,  vents,  clay  holes,  &c.,  so  that  it  may  be 
converted  with  readiness  into  the  various  shapes  required. 

Compactness  and  Weight.  As  a rule,  the  more  con- 
solidated the  grains  or  particles  composing  the  stone,  the 
longer  will  it  resist  detrimental  atmospheric  conditions. 

The  weight  of  a stone  has  to  be  at  times  considered, 
and  should  be  such  as  to  suit  the  work  to  be  carried  out. 
In  quay  walls,  piers  of  bridges,  buttresses,  &c.,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  use  heavy  stones,  as  their  weight  adds  to  their 
stability;  while  for  the  filling-in  of  panels  in  vaulting, 
and  similar  work,  lighter  stones  are  preferable. 

Agents  which  Destroy  Stones.  These  are  chemical 
agents,  consisting  of  acids,  &c.,  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
physical  agents,  such  as  rain,  frost,  wind,  dust,  &c. 

Other  enemies  are  worms  or  molluscs,  which  may  just 


394 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


be  noticed  here.  The  Pliolas  dactylus  is  a boring  mollusc 
found  in  the  sea,  which  attacks  limestones  and  sand- 
stones, however  hard,  with  great  vigor.  It  bores  holes 
close  together,  of  various  sizes  and  depths,  which  so 
weaken  the  stonework  that  it  is  ultimately  destroyed.  The 
Saxicava  is  another  small  boring  mollusc,  which  bores 
holes  six  inches  deep  in  hard  limestones.  The  only  way 
to  resist  their  attacks  is  to  case  the  work  with  granite, 
which  successfully  withstands  them. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES. 


According  to  geologists,  all  rocks  from  which  building 
stones  are  obtained  may  be  primarily  divided  into  two 
great  classes — viz.,  aqueous  rocks,  formed  by  the  agency 
of  water;  and  igneous  rocks,  formed  by  the  action  of 
subterranean  heat.  There  is  also  a sub-class — viz.,  meta- 
morphic  rocks,  including  either  of  the  above  classes — 
which,  originally  stratified,  or  aqueous,  have  since  been 
changed  in  their  texture  by  great  heat  or  pressure. 

Aqueous  rocks  constitute  by  far  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  rocks  of  the  earth’s  crust,  and  comprise  most  of 
the  limestones  and  sandstones  in  common  use  for  building 
purposes. 

These  aqueous  rocks  are  also  termed  stratified  or  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  owing  to  the  nature  of  their  formation; 
that  is,  their  particles  were  once  held  in  solution  in  water, 
and  gradually  sank  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea  or  a lake, 
and  in  process  of  time  became  solidified,  afterwards  mak- 
ing their  appearance  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  reason 
of  upheavals  and  disruptions  thereof. 

Igneous  rocks  form  a much  smaller  portion  of  the 
earth’s  crust  than  the  aqueous  rocks,  and  are  of  volcanic 
origin ; they  appear  to  be  formed  by  fusions  due  to  in- 
tense heat,  generated  by  chemical  action  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth.  Hence  the  stones  in  this  class  are  as  a rule  ex- 
tremely hard;  they  comprise  the  granites,  traps,  and 
syenites,  some  of  which  are  quite  unworkable. 

395 


396 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


GRANITES,  TRAPS  AND  SYENITES. 

Granite  is  the  rock  most  commonly  met  with  in  this 
class.  Its  component  parts  consist  of  quartz,  felspar, 
and  mica.  The  first  of  these  is  practically  indestructible, 
and  when  largely  present  renders  the  stone  extremely 
hard. 

The  quartz  is  in  the  form  of  clear,  colorless,  or  gray 
crystals,  and  is  easily  recognized,  being  not  unlike  frag- 
ments of  glass,  and  is  pure  silica.  It  surrounds  the  other 
ingredients  like  a wrapper,  the  felspar  and  mica  being 
embedded  in  it. 

The  felspar  is  in  compact,  opaque  grains  or  crystals 
of  a white  or  flesh  color,  and  is  the  predominant  con- 
stituent and  usually  the  first  to  show  signs  of  decay.  The 
mica  is  in  small,  white,  silvery  scales,  easily  removable 
with  the  point  of  a knife,  and  capable  when  large  enough 
of  being  bent. 

Granite  usually  contains  more  of  felspar  than  of  quartz, 
and  more  of  quartz  than  of  mica;  and  the  color  of  the 
granite  is  influenced  to  some  extent  by  that  of  the  prin- 
cipal ingredient. 

The  best  quality  of  granite  is  considered  to  be  that  in 
which  the  grains  or  particles  are  fine,  uniform  in  size, 
and  lustrous,  and  equally  distributed  throughout  the  whole 
mass,  its  durability  depending  upon  the  quantity  of  its 
quartz,  and  upon  the  nature  of  its  felspar,  whether  con- 
taining potash  or  soda ; potash  felspar  being  more  liable 
to  decay  than  soda  felspar. 

Syenite  granite  is  tougher  and  more  compact  than  the 
ordinary  granite,  but  is  less  commonly  found,  and  owing 
to  its  color  and  intractable  qualities  in  working  is  not 
often  used.  In  syenitic  granite  the  mica  is  replaced  by 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES 


397 


hornblende,  which  is  in  black  or  dark  green  grains ; it  is 
easily  distinguished  from  mica  by  the  scales  not  separat- 
ing so  freely;  these  also  are  brittle  instead  of  elastic,  and 
sometimes  have  a fibrous  appearance. 

Granite  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  building  stones, 
owing  to  its  great  strength,  hardness,  and  compact  tex- 
ture, which  renders  it  able  to  resist  in  a high  degree  the 
action  of  wind  and  rain,  and  other  physical  agencies  sur- 
rounding it.  A great  amount  of  labor,  however,  is  re- 
quired to  cut  and  bring  it  to  a high  finish,  hence  it  is  only 
used  in  building  for  special  purposes,  and  in  good  monu- 
mental work.  It  is  found  in  various  gradations  of  color, 
and  great  variety  of  texture  and  composition,  and  takes 
a high  and  permanent  polish. 

Porphyry,  owing  to  its  granular  structure  and  extreme 
hardness,  is  little  used  for  building  or  ornamental  pur- 
poses, and  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  unworkable.  It  is  in- 
capable of  being  raised  in  large  blocks,  and  is  principally 
used  for  road  metalling,  for  which  its  hardness  and  tough- 
ness render  it  specially  suitable. 

The  ancients  are  believed  to  have  been  in  possession  of 
some  secret  of  preparing  bronze  tools,  which  were  capable 
of  acting  upon  this  intractable  material,  and  carving  in 
it  with  facility  their  colossal  statues,  obelisks,  &c., 
which  remain  to  this  day  monuments  of  their  skill  in  the 
use  of  the  chisel.  And  it  is  very  humiliating  to  think 
that,  with  all  our  modern  scientific  knowledge  and  ex- 
tended manipulation  of  metals,  we  cannot  produce  steel 
or  other  tools  sufficiently  hardened  to  successfully  attack 
and  work  this  beautiful  material. 

Trap  rocks  comprise  basalts  and  greenstones,  which 
occur  in  dykes,  sheets,  or  other  eruptive  masses  of  vol- 
canic origin,  and  are  sometimes  stratified  and  sometimes 


398 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


columnar.  These  rocks  are  of  a dense  and  compact 
texture,  extremely  hard  and  tough,  and  are  seldom  used 
in  building.  The  color  is  too  sombre,  being  of  a dark 
green  inclined  to  black,  but  the  stone  is  much  used  for 
kerbs,  paving,  road  metalling,  &c.  Basalt,  which  occurs 
in  columnar  form,  is  seen  at  the  Giant's  Causeway, 
Ireland,  and  Fingal's  Cave,  Staffa.  It  is  composed  of 
several  minerals — felspar,  augite,  magnetic  iron,  &c. ; 
these,  however,  can  rarely  be  detected  by  the  eye  alone. 

Greenstones  show  larger  crystals,  are  heavier  than 
granite,  but  not  so  durable,  owing  to  their  containing 
more  of  the  bases  of  iron,  lime,  &c.,  and  much  less  silica. 

SANDSTONES. 

Sandstones  are  sedimentary  rocks,  which  have  been  de- 
posited by  the  action  of  water.  They  consist  generally 
of  grains  of  sand  cemented  together  by  different  sub- 
stances— such  as  carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia, silica,  alumina,  oxide  of  iron — or  a combination  of 
those  substances. 

In  a good  building  stone  very  little  lime  should  be 
present  as  a cementing  material,  it  being  the  first  to  give 
way  under  atmospheric  influences.  The  cementing  prop- 
erty of  the  stone,  to  be  of  an  enduring  nature,  should 
therefore  be  silicious.  The  general  characteristics  of  a 
good  sandstone  are  that  the  grains  should  be  compact 
and  homogeneous,  and  on  crushing  a bit  of  the  stone 
the  grains  should  be  lustrous,  as  those  with  a dull  lustre 
are  generally  found  in  a stone  that  weathers  indifferently. 
Sandstones  with  large  angular  grains  are  termed  grit- 
stones, and  the  most  compact  of  these  are  used  for  grind- 
stones and  similar  purposes.  Sandstones  often  exhibit 
distinct  beds  of  stratification  along  which  they  have  a 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES 


399 


tendency  to  split.  A good  example  of  this  is  seen  in  pav- 
ing slabs  in  which  the  planes  of  cleavage  are  strongly 
defined. 

LIMESTONES. 

Limestones  are  also  sedimentary  rocks  that  have  been 
deposited  by  the  action  of  water;  they  are  composed 
largely  of  carbonate  of  lime,  cemented  together  by  the 
same  substance,  or  by  some  mixture  of  carbonate  of  lime 
with  silica  or  alumina.  They  belong  to  what  is  termed 
the  calcareous  series  of  rocks,  which  also  include  the 
chalks  (the  purest  form  of  limestone)  and  marbles  which 
are  crystalline  and  take  a high  polish.  Limestones  usual- 
ly contain  fossil  remains,  both  animal  and  vegetable. 

Portland  and  Bath  stone  are  the  best  known  of  the 
group  which  are  used  for  structural  purposes,  and  belong 
to  the  oolitic  series.  Oolite  is  composed  of  small  round 
grains,  which  in  appearance  resembles  the  roe  of  a fish, 
and  on  that  account  is  sometimes  termed  Roestone. 
When  the  grains  are  flat  and  as  large  as  peas  it  gets  the 
name  of  Pisolite,  or  pea  grit. 

Siliciferous  limestones,  which  also  belong  to  the  oolitic 
series,  have  excellent  weathering  qualities,  owing  to  the 
siliciferous  nature  of  the  cementing  material  which  binds 
the  particles  of  the  stone. 

Magnesian  limestones  contain  carbonate  of  lime,  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  and  a small  quantity  of  silica  and 
alumina,  and  are  termed  dolomites.  They  are  more  or 
less  crystalline  in  their  nature,  the  crystals  being  small 
and  compact. 

MARBLES FOREIGN. 

Marble  is  a general  term  given  to  any  hard  and  com- 
pact limestone  capable  of  taking  a fine  polish.  It  is  found 
in  all  great  limestone  formations,  and  consists  chiefly  of 


400 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


pure  carbonate  of  lime  in  a state  of  crystallization.  The 
various  colors  are  derived  principally  from  metallic 
oxides,  which  give  the  marble  a handsome  appearance, 
much  enhanced  by  polishing. 

The  Continent  supply  us  with  large  quantities  of 
marble,  plain  and  decorative,  much  varied  in  character, 
and  embracing  a vast  range  of  color. 

The  chief  supplies  are  obtained  from  Italy,  France  and 
Belgium;  lesser  supplies  are  from  Switzerland,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  also  recently  from  Africa. 

The  celebrated  Carrara  quarries  in  Tuscany,  Italy,  fur- 
nish us  with  the  most  important  marbles ; of  these, 
Sicilian  is  the  most  useful.  The  term  “Sicilian”  is  purely 
English,  and  is  of  doubtful  origin : it  is,  however,  a mis- 
nomer, as  it  does  not  come  from  Sicily ; it  is  supposed  to 
have  obtained  its  derivation  from  being  in  its  early  days 
shipped  from  Leghorn  to  Sicily,  and  thence  re-shipped  to 
England. 

It  is  known  in  Italy  as  Ravaccione,  or  Bianco  Chiaro; 
in  France,  Blanc  Clair;  and  in  America  as  Ordinary. 

Sicilian  marble  is  of  a bluish-white  ground,  mottled 
with  darker  shades  of  gray ; it  is  used  perhaps  more  than 
any  other  kind  of  marble  for  works  of  general  utility.  It 
is  admirably  adapted  for  monumental  purposes,  columns, 
statues,  vases,  stairs,  wall  linings,  baths,  chimney-pieces, 
&c.  All  the  varieties  of  Carrara  marble,  when  used  ex- 
ternally in  this  country,  have  perishable  qualities;  and 
it  has  been  noticed  that  after  exposure  to  the  weather 
for  thirty  or  forty  years  a gradual  disintegration  of  the 
surface  has  taken  place. 

When  used  out  of  doors,  the  marble  with  slightly  bluish 
tint  and  of  uniform  color  should  be  selected,  this  being 
the  hardest  and  toughest,  and  better  able  to  withstand 
atmospheric  influences. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES  401 

Statuary  marble  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  marbles, 
and  is  from  the  same  Carrara  quarries ; it  is  probably  the 
purest  limestone  in  existence,  very  crystalline  in  its  struc- 
ture, and  of  a fine  and  compact  texture.  As  its  name  im- 
plies, it  is  almost  exclusively  used  for  the  higher  de- 
partments of  sculptural  art,  for  which  it  is  so  well 
adapted,  such  as  statues,  groups,  monuments,  and  orna- 
mental enrichments  where  delicate  and  refined  treatment 
is  required.  " 

This  marble  is  considerably  varied  in  character,  the  best 
blocks  being  of  a perfectly  white  color  throughout ; these 
are  much  sought  after,  but  are  only  occasionally  found 
quite*  pure,  and  then  command  high  prices. 

Cloudy  markings  and  spots  of  a bluish-gray  color  in 
the  blocks  are  defects,  which  must  be  avoided  in  sculpture 
work,  hence  its  costliness. 

Bastard  Statuary  is  the  name  given  to  blocks  having 
colored  markings ; these  blocks  when  hard  in  texture 
are  of  good  commercial  value,  and  make  up  well  into 
chimney-pieces,  tablets,  &c.,  and  take  a high  polish. 

Vein  marble  is  another  of  the  varieties  of  Carrara ; 
it  is  of  much  whiter  ground  than  the  Sicilian,  and  is 
marked  with  dark  pencil-tinted  veins.  It  is  more  or  less 
valuable  according  to  the  regularity  and  fineness  of  its 
veinings.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  internal  decoration,  for 
stairs,  chimney-pieces,  wall  linings,  table  tops,  &c. 

This  marble  was  formerly  in  much  request  on  account 
of  its  appearance,  adaptation,  and  easy  working;  latterly, 
however,  the  demand  has  somewhat  diminished,  having 
been  to  some  extent  superseded  by  the  Sicilian  marble, 
which  has  been  previously  described. 

Bardilla  is  a very  chaste  and  quiet-looking  marble, 
and  is  one  of  the  Carrara  series.  It  is  of  a bluish-gray 


402 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


ground,  with  numerous  black  veins  running  through  it  in 
all  directions.  It  was  at  one  time  much  used  for  chimney- 
pieces  and  decorative  work  generally,  but  latterly  has  got 
out  of  date,  and  made  way  for  newer  marbles. 

Dove  marble,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  of  a dark  bluish- 
gray  color,  with  lighter  marks  or  cloudings  over  its  sur- 
face; sometimes  it  has  a lighter  ground  with  faint  dark 
marks  or  veins.  This  marble  was  chiefly  used  for  chim- 
ney-pieces, &c.,  but  is  now  for  a time  out  of  fashion. 

This  marble  also  is  one  of  the  Carrara  series. 

Pavonazzo  is  a new,  and  now  well-known,  marble.  It 
is  raised  near  Carrara.  It  is  of  a very  rich  color,  the 
ground  varying  from  a creamy-white  to  a yellowish- 
brown,  with  veinings  of  purple,  and  here  and  there  a 
greenish  tinge,  which  much  enhances  its  value.  It  is 
much  used  for  wall  linings,  where  it  is  seen  to  great  ad- 
vantage on  account  of  its  markings,  and  also  for  chimney- 
pieces,  table  tops,  &c.  It  has  only  been  of  recent  years 
introduced  into  this  country,  but  has  taken  well,  and  is 
in  much  request  for  decorative  purposes. 

The  above  enumeration  includes  most  of  the  varieties 
of  marble  that  are  found  in  the  extensive  quarries  at 
Carrara,  but  in  other  parts  of  Italy  are  raised  colored 
marbles  of  great  beauty;  the  names  of  a few  are  here 
given. 

Black  and  Gold  is  a very  handsome  black  marble 
with  yellow  veins.  The  veining  is  very  beautiful,  run- 
ning from  white  through  every  gradation  of  yellow  to 
light  brown,  the  pencillings  being  very  delicate.  It  is 
not  so  much  in  use  now  as  formerly,  having  gone  out  of 
fashion,  but  it  is  still  used  to  a considerable  extent  in  good 
buildings  for  chimney-pieces,  pedestals,  table  tops,  &c. ; 
its  dark  color  forms  an  admirable  contrast  to  sculptured 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES 


403 

figures  in  statuary,  alabaster,  or  other  light-colored  ob- 
jects of  art. 

Genoa  Green,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  town  it 
indicates,  is  a handsome  marble : its  ground  is  dark  green 
in  color,  filled  with  veinings  of  a lighter  green  and  white ; 
it  is  used  for  pilasters,  chimney-pieces,  and  wall  surface 
decoration,  for  which  it  is  much  adapted. 

It  is  frequently  sawn  up  into  veneer  when  a specially 
good  figured  block  is  obtained. 

Sienna  is  quarried  near  the  town  of  that  name.  It  is 
of  a rich  golden-yellow  color,  with  purple  and  black  veins 
beautifully  interspersed.  On  account  of  its  scarcity,  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  the  deep-colored  blocks,  except  on  pay- 
ment of  a very  high  price,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  best 
figured  blocks  are  sold  by  weight. 

It  is  a most  beautiful  marble  for  all  decorative  pur- 
poses. 

Egyptian  Green.  This  marble  has  a darkish  green 
ground  with  spots  of  gray  and  occasionally  of  white. 
Another  variety  has  a red  ground  with  clear  dark  green 
veins  and  a network  of  white  lines.  These  marbles  are 
very  choice ; they  are  somewhat  difficult  to  work,  but  look 
well  and  take  a good  polish. 

Both  marbles  are  quarried  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Carrara. 

Riiondona,  a marble  quarried  at  Mount  Rhondona, 
Tuscany,  has  a ground  of  pale  pinkish-white,  with  dark 
gray  veins,  and  tinges  of  grayish-purple. 

It  is  a marble  of  great  beauty. 

Breccia.  This  term  is  applied  to  brecciated  marbles, 
or  those  which  contain  fragments  of  older  rocks,  held  to- 
gether by  an  intermediate  material.  It  is  sometimes 
termed  Puddingstones,  but  this  term  should  only  apply 


404 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


to  those  marbles  in  which  the  fragments  are  rounded  in- 
stead of  being  angular. 

The  Italian  Breccias  are  very  beautiful. 

Belgian  marbles  are  few  in  number,  and  these  are  gen- 
erally considered  to  be  of  a common  and  cheap  class. 

They  have  been  most  effectively  worked  by  the  Bel- 
gians, who,  to  their  credit,  have  developed  a marble  trade 
which  has  made  their  country  the  principal  European 
market  for  this  class  of  colored  marbles,  both  in  the  raw 
material  and  the  worked-up.  Their  exportation  of  chim- 
ney-pieces alone  must  be  of  enormous  magnitude. 

St.  Anne’s  marble  is  the  best  known  and  the  most 
useful ; it  has  a grayish-black  ground  with  somewhat 
lighter  shades,  and  flowered  with  white  patches  and  veins. 
It  is  a sound  marble  of  great  utility,  looks  well,  and  takes 
a high  polish. 

Rouge  Royal  is  a general  term  for  several  varieties  of 
these  marbles,  all  of  which  have  fanciful  names,  such  as 
Rouge  Griotte,  Rouge  Fleurie,  Rouge  Rose,  Rouge  By- 
zantine, &c. ; these,  however,  have  much  the  same  color 
and  character  throughout. 

The  best  Rouge  is  considered  to  be  of  a dark  brownish- 
red  ground,  with  gray  cloudings,  and  the  veinings  well 
marked,  of  a clear  white. 

Selected  marble  of  this  description  has  quite  a hand- 
some appearance. 

It  has  come  to  be  generally  understood  that  to  specify 
Rouge  Griotte  is  to  specify  the  best  Rouge  that  can  be 
obtained. 

The  defect  in  the  Rouge  consists  of  its  being  generally 
unsound,  and  containing  clayish  shakes,  which  require 
some  amount  of  skill  and  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the 
workman  in  concealing  with  stopping. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES 


405 


A large  quantity  of  the  above  two  marbles  ( St.  Anne's 
and  Rouge)  are  worked  up  chiefly  into  chimney-pieces, 
table  tops,  fender  curbs,  &c.,  and  imported  into  this  coun- 
try at  a low  price.  This  particular  class  of  work  is  much 
cultivated  in  Belgium,  where  labor  is  cheap. 

Blue  Bei.ge  has  a bluish-black  ground,  with  fine  white 
veins ; it  is  a very  useful  marble,  but  is  not  well  figured, 
as  the  veins  run  in  straight  lines,  which  become  somewhat 
monotonous  in  appearance  when  polished;  it  is  the  most 
common  of  all  the  Belgian  marbles. 

Belgian  Black  is  considered  the  finest  black  marble 
to  be  obtained  in  the  world;  no  other  country  produces 
a marble  that  will  compare  with  it  in  uniformity  of  color 
and  closeness  of  texture.  It  takes  a high  polish.  This 
marble  is,  however,  difficult  to  work  on  account  of  its 
hard  nature,  and  is  therefore  costly  to  produce. 

Of  French  marbles  there  are  a great  number,  most  of 
which  are  very  beautiful. 

A few  of  those  imported  into  this  country  are  here 
given. 

Griotte.  This  marble  has  a deep  red  ground,  with 
numerous  small  spots  or  eyes  scattered  over  the  surface 
of  pure  pearly  white,  which  gives  it  a beautiful  appear- 
ance. It  is  difficult  to  work  owing  to  its  formation,  which 
is  much  laminated,  being  similar  to  the  leaves  in  a book, 
or,  rather,  the  laminations  in  slate. 

It  will  cut  better  one  way  with  the  chisel  than  the  other, 
and  sand  and  water  are  the  chief  agents  in  its  manipula- 
tion. 

Languedoc  is  a bright  red  marble,  streaked  with  white 
and  gray  veins.  It  is  a very  handsome  marble,  the  white 
portion  in  some  cases  being  semi-transparent. 

The  result  of  the  sharp  contrast  in  color  between  the 


406 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


red  and  white  is  very  striking,  and  much  enhances  its  ap- 
pearance. 

It  is  quarried  at  Alais  (Gard),  in  the  old  province  of 
Languedoc,  France. 

Rouge  Jasper  is  a marble  in  which  tints  of  red  and  yel- 
low appear  side  by  side,  with  white  in  sharp  contrast,  and 
in  irregular  patches. 

Lamartine.  These  marbles  are  known  as  Brocatelle’s, 
and  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Molinges.  They 
are  considered  to  be  very  handsome,  their  contrasts  of 
color  being  most  pleasing.  Jaune  Lamartine  is  of  a 
fine  yellow  ground,  and  profusely  veined  with  fine  pencil- 
lings  of  red  and  brown;  it  is  the  pick  of  the  marbles  of 
Molinges.  Jaune  Fleuri  is  another  variety  of  the  same; 
it  is  of  similar  appearance,  but  of  a much  darker  yellow, 
some  specimens  being  of  a rich  reddish  brown,  and  the 
veins  in  it  more  closely  distributed  than  in  Jaune  Lamar- 
tine. 

Brocatelle  Violet  is  another  of  the  series;  this  has 
been  the  longest  known  and  worked.  The  ground  is  of  a 
violet  tint,  and  it  is  veined  and  figured  with  white  and 
yellow.  It  much  resembles  in  appearance  Spanish  Broca- 
telle, but  cannot  quite  compare  with  it  in  beauty. 

Campan.  The  Campan  marbles  are  so  called  from  the 
situation  of  the  quarries  in  the  Upper  Pyrenees ; they  are 
exceedingly  beautiful,  and  present  great  varieties  of 
color. 

Campan  Vert  is  the  best  known;  it  is  of  two  kinds, 
the  clear  and  the  dark.  The  former  has  very  light  shades 
of  green,  softly  blended  with  the  veins  of  darker  green. 
The  dark  variety  has  a ground  of  dark  green,  with 
numerous  flesh-colored  and  red  spots,  interspersed  with 
thin  white  veins.  Campan  Rouge  has  a dull  red  ground, 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STONES 


407 


with  veins  of  darker  red  and  bronze-green,  mixed  with 
flesh-colored  and  greenish-white  spots.  Campan  Isa- 
belle has  a rose-colored  ground,  merging,  in  some  places, 
into  a dark  red,  with  a few  white  spots  and  pale  green 
veins. 

Brocatelle  d’Espagne  (Brocatella)  is  quarried  near 
Tortosa,  Catalonia,  Spain. 

It  has  a dark  red  ground,  covered  with  yellowish-gray 
and  clear  white  spots,  with  some  violet  spots  and  veins ; 
it  is  composed  of  crushed  shells,  and  is  properly  speaking 
a lumachello.  It  is  a very  beautiful  and  choice  marble, 
but. somewhat  out  of  date  at  the  present  time. 

Emperor’s  Red  is  a Portuguese  marble,  and  quarried 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Lisbon ; it  is  of  a mottled  yellow- 
ish-pink, some  large  patches  of  light  red  occurring  occa- 
sionally, with  veinings  of  dark  red  and  light  brown. 

The  demand  for  it,  however,  is  as  yet  only  limited. 

Cippollino.  This  name  is  given  to  marbles  having  a 
whitish  ground  traversed  with  veins  of  green  talc.  There 
are  a number  of  varieties,  and  to  this  class  belongs  the 
rediscovered  Antique  Cippollino  marble  of  Saillon,  Swit- 
zerland. It  is  largely  used  in  this  country,  chiefly  for 
wall  linings  and  internal  decoration,  for  which  its  color- 
ings render  it  particularly  adapted.  A kind  found  at 
Pentelicus,  in  Greece,  is  called  Statuary  Cippollino. 

A fine  Cippollino  is  quarried  at  Onofrio,  in  Corsica, 
and  other  varieties  are  found  at  Basle,  in  Switzerland. 

Numidian.  The  marbles  bearing  this  name  are  of 
great  variety,  and  are  obtained  near  the  village  of  Kleber, 
about  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Oran,  in  the  western 
part  of  Algiers.  These  marbles  comprise  a creamy  white 
Marmor  Bianco ; a flesh-tinted  Rosa ; a fine  variety  of 
Cippollino:  various  speciments  of  Giallo  Antico;  yellow 


408 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


marbles  of  various  tints,  and  brecciated  marbles,  includ- 
ing Breccia  Sanguine,  Breccia  Coronato,  and  Breccia 
Grande,  the  last  named  of  a deep  red  color,  slightly  brec- 
ciated, and  resembling  Rosso  Antico. 

These  breccias  are  all  of  great  beauty,  sound,  and  even 
in  texture,  and  take  a high  polish. 

All  these  marbles  are  shipped  at  Oran,  Algiers. 

Onyx  (Mexican),  quarried  at  Pueblos,  near  Vera 
Cruz.  This  marble  is  a splendid  material  for  the  deco- 
rative arts : every  color  may  be  found  in  it — green  in  all 
its  gradations ; white  and  grays  of  all  tints ; red,  pink, 
black,  violet,  yellow,  and  even  blue,  and  some  portions 
resemble  jade.  Its  density  surpasses  all  known  marbles, 
and  it  is  considered  to  be  the  connecting  link  between 
precious  stones  and  marble,  being  as  easily  worked  as  any 
other  marble. 

As  the  polish  is  equal  to  that  of  the  finest  and  most 
precious  stones,  such  as  agate,  amethyst,  jade  and  onyx, 
and  will  last  for  many  years,  so  it  is  adaptable  for  external 
as  well  as  internal  decoration : this  same  polish  is  pro- 
duced as  easily  as  upon  any  other  fine  marble.  It  can  be 
cut  as  thin  as  glass,  and  is  nearly  as  transparent,  and  in 
Mexico  it  is  used  in  some  of  the  cathedrals  and  churches 
for  windows,  giving  that  “dim  religious  light”  so  much 
valued. 

Onyx  (Algerian).  This  marble  is  translucent;  its 
colors  are  usually  amber  and  white ; it  is  used  chiefly  for 
ornaments,  small  panels,  &c. 

Onyx  (Brazilian).  This  is  a green  marble,  that  is 
most  exquisitely  veined  with  red  and  yellow,  and  more 
than  compares  in  beauty  with  that  produced  in  Mexico. 


DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS 


409 


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Table  of  Diameters,  Circumferences,  and  Areas  of  Circles.— (Continued) 


410 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


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Table  of  Diameters,  Circumferences,  and  Areas  of  Circles.— (Continued) 


DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS 


411 


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412 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


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above  table,  and  then  multiplying  by  2. 

The  Area  of  CirceES  of  Larger  Diameters  (up  to  200  ft.)  than  those  above  given  may  be 
found  by  taking  one  half  of  the  diameter  of  the  proposed  circle — finding  the  area  of  same  by  above 
table,  and  multiplying  this  area  by  4.  Circles  being  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS. 


Abacus.  The  tablet  or  the  upper  member  of  the  capital 
of  a column;  varying  in  the  several  orders  and  styles. 

Abutment.  The  solid  part  of  a pier  which,  receives  the 
thrust  or  lateral  pressure  of  the  arch,  and  from  which 
the  arch  immediately  springs. 

Alabaster.  A white  translucent  species  of  gypsum  or 
sulphate  of  lime,  composed  of  crystalline  grains  in  a 
compact  mass.  It  is  capable  of  being  worked  to  a high 
degree  of  finish,  and  taking  a fine  polish. 

It  is  much  used  for  interior  decorations,  monuments, 
&c. 

Annular  Vault.  A vault  springing  from  two  walls, 
each  circular  on  plan. 

Annulet.  A s|mall  fillet  encircling  a column,  used 
either  alone  or  in  connection  with  other  mouldings. 

Arc.  In  geometry,  a portion  of  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  or  other  curve  line. 

Arcade.  A covered  passage  composed  generally  of  a 
range  of  arches,  supported  either  on  columns  or  piers, 
and  detached  from  or  attached  to  the  wall. 

Arch.  A concave  or  hollow  structure  supported  by  its 
own  curve. 

A number  of  wedge-shaped  stones  disposed  in  the 
line  of  some  curve,  and  supporting  each  other  by  their 
mutual  pressure. 

The  arch  itself  is  composed  of  voussoirs,  or  arch 
stones,  the  uppermost  of  which  is  called  the  keystone. 

416 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


4i; 


Architrave.  The  lower  of  the  three  principal  members 
of  the  entablature  of  an  order,  being  the  chief  beam 
resting  immediately  on  the  columns. 

A collection  of  mouldings  round  a door,  window,  or 
other  aperture.  See  also  Entablature. 

Archivolt.  The  band  of  mouldings  round  the  arch 
stones  of  an  arch,  which  terminates  horizontally  upon 
the  impost. 

Arris.  The  line  or  edge  on  which  two  surfaces  forming 
an  exterior  angle  meet  each  other,  either  plane  or 
curved. 

Ashlar.  A term  for  hewn  or  squared  stone,  as  distin- 
guished from  unwrought  material;  it  is  generally  used 
for  facings,  and  set  in  horizontal  courses,  and  bears 
various  names  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
worked,  such  as  Plain  Ashlar,  Tooled  Ashlar,  Rustic 
Ashlar,  &c. 

Astragal.  A small  moulding  of  a semicircular  profile. 
The  name  is  generally  applied  to  the  necking  separat- 
ing the  capital  from  the  column.  See  also  Moulding. 

Axis  of  a Cylinder.  A right  line  passing  through  the 
solid,  from  the  centre  of  one  of  the  circular  ends  to  the 
centre  of  the  other,  and  the  line  on  which  such  a body 
may  be  conceived  to  revolve. 

Axis  of  a Dome.  A right  line  perpendicular  to  the 
horizon,  passing  through  the  centre  of  its  base. 

Banker.  A block  of  stone  forming  a bench  on  which 
the  stone  is  worked. 

Base.  In  geometry,  the  lower  part  of  a figure  or  body. 

The  base  of  a solid  is  the  surface  on  which  it  rests. 

In  masonry,  the  lower  moulded  part,  between  the 
shaft  and  the  pedestal. 


418 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Batter.  A wall  that  inclines  inward  from  a vertical  or 
plumb  line,  so  that  the  upper  part  of  the  surface  falls 
within  the  base. 

Bed.  The  horizontal  surface  on  which  a stone  lies.  The 
beds  of  a stone  are  the  surfaces  where  the  stones  meet ; 
the  upper  surface  is  called  the  top  bed,  and  the  under 
surface  the  bottom  bed.  See  also  Natural  Bed. 

Billet  Moulding.  A Norman  moulding  used  in  arches, 
strings,  &c. ; it  consists  of  small  short  lengths  of  beads 
or  bars,  cut  in  hollow  mouldings,  with  spaces  between 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  billet.  See  also  Moulding. 

Blocking-course.  A course  of  stones  placed  on  the  top 
of  a cornice,  forming  the  summit  of  the  wall. 

Boasting.  Cutting  the  stone  roughly  to  form  of  in- 
tended carving. 

Bond.  The  disposition  or  lapping  of  the  stones  so  that 
vertical  joints  may  not  fall  over  one  another,  but  fall 
directly  over  the  middle  of  the  stone  below,  in  order 
to  form  an  inseparable  mass  of  building 

Bond-stone.  Stones  whose  longest  horizontal  direction 
is  placed  in  the  thickness  of  the  work,  for  the  purpose 
of  binding  the  wall  together. 

Boning.  The  art  of  testing  a plane  surface  by  the  guid- 
ance of  the  eye  and  the  aid  of  two  straight-edges,  by 
which  it  is  seen  whether  the  work  is  out  of  winding,  or 
whether  the  surface  be  plane  or  twisted. 

Boss.  A sculptured  or  carved  projection  to  conceal  the 
intersection  of  the  moulded  ribs  in  a vault,  or  at  the 
stop  end  of  a string  course  or  label. 

Breaking  Joint.  The  placing  of  a stone  over  the 
course  below,  in  such  a position  that  the  joint  above 
shall  not  fall  vertically  directly  over  the  joint  below  it. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


419 


Buttress.  A pier  of  masonry  projecting  from  a wall  to 
support  and  strengthen  it.  Buttresses  are  employed  in 
Gothic  buildings  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the  vaulting  and 
roof,  and  also  to  stiffen  walls  and  towers  of  great 
height. 

Camber.  The  slightly  hollowed  soffit  given  to  a lintel 
or  flat  arch  to  correct  the  apparent  sinking  down  in 
the  centre. 

Canopy.  An  ornamental  projection  over  windows, 
doors,  niches,  &c. 

Cant.  An  external  splay  angle  cut  off  a square. 

Cantilever.  A large  projecting  bracket  to  support  cor- 
nices, balconies,  eaves,  &c. 

Capital.  The  head  or  uppermost  member  of  a column 
pier,  or  pilaster,  in  any  part  of  a building,  but  generally 
applied  to  that  of  a column  or  pilaster  of  the  several 
orders. 

Chamfer.  The  arris  of  a solid  cut  to  a bevelled  plane. 

Chevron.  A zigzag  or  V-shaped  ornament  used  in 
mouldings,  chiefly  to  arches  in  Norman  work. 

Chiselled  Work.  The  surface  of  a stone  formed  by  the 
chisel. 

Chord.  In  geometry,  a straight  line  drawn  from  any 
point  of  an  arc  to  any  other  point  of  that  arc. 

Circle.  A plane  figure,  of  which  its  boundary  is  every- 
where at  an  equal  distance  from  a point  within  its  sur- 
face, called  its  centre. 

Its  perimeter  encloses  the  largest  area  of  any  figure. 

Circular  Work.  A term  applied  to  any  work  with 
cylindric  faces. 

Circumference.  The  curve  line  which  bounds  the  area 
of  a circle. 


420  STONEMASONS*  GUIDE 

Circumscribe.  To  draw  a line  round  a figure  so  as  to 
enclose  it. 

Closer.  The  last  stone  fixed  in  a horizontal  course 
which  is  usually  of  less  dimensions  than  the  others. 

Coffer.  A sunk  panel  in  vaults,  domes,  and  arches.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  any  sunk  panel  in  a ceiling  or 
soffit. 

Column.  A cylindrical  or  polygonal  pier,  which  sup- 
ports a superincumbent  weight  in  a vertical  direction ; 
it  is  generally  composed  of  a base,  shaft,  and  capital. 
See  also  Pilaster. 

Concave.  A hollow  line  or  surface,  as  the  soffit  of  an 
arch,  vault,  or  the  inner  surface  of  a sphere. 

Concentric.  Having  the  same  centre  but  different 
radii. 

Conic  Sections.  The  figures  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tions of  a plane  with  a cone,  which  do  not  include  the 
triangle  or  the  circle.  These  three  sections  are  the  el- 
lipse, parabola,  and  hyperbola. 

Contour.  The  outline  of  a figure  or  body ; the  line  that 
bounds. 

Convex.  A rising  or  swelling  on  the  exterior  surface 
into  a round  or  spherical  form,  as  the  outside  of  a 
sphere,  the  extrados  of  an  arch,  &c. 

Coping.  The  highest  and  top  covering  course  in  a wall. 

Corbel.  A small  bracket  projecting  from  the  wall  to 
support  some  superincumbent  weight. 

Cornice.  A horizontal  projection,  moulded,  decorated, 
or  otherwise,  which  crowns  or  terminates  a wall,  build- 
ing, pedestal,  or  other  piece  of  work. 

Course.  A row  of  stones  of  the  same  height  generally 
placed  on  a level  bed.  The  stones  round  the  face  and 
intrados  of  an  arch,  are  also  called  a course  of  stones. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


421 


Coursing  Joint.  The  joint  between  two  courses  of 
stone. 

Crown  of  an  Arch.  The  highest  or  central  part  of  an 
arch  or  any  arched  surface. 

Cupola.  A concave  ceiling  or  roof,  hemispherical  or 
nearly  so.  A small  dome. 

Curtail  Step.  The  first  or  bottom  step  of  a stairs,  gen- 
erally of  a curved  form  on  plan,  and  a curved  quoin 
end. 

Curve  Line.  A concave  or  convex  line. 

Cusp.  A triangular  projection  from  an  inner  curve  of  a 
tracery  arch  or  window. 

Cylinder.  A circular  body  of  uniform  diameter,  whose 
ends  or  base  form  equal  parallel  circles,  and  whose 
curved  surface  is  everywhere  at  an  equal  distance  from 
its  axis. 

The  cone,  sphere,  and  cylinder  have  a relative  value 
to  each  other,  namely,  that  the  cone  is  one-third  the 
cylinder  having  the  same  base  and  height ; and  the  in- 
scribed sphere  two-thirds  of  the  cylinder,  or  the  cone, 
sphere,  and  cylinder  are  to  each  other  as  the  numbers 
L 2,  3. 

Cylindrical  Work,  Any  form  of  work  which  partaker 
of  the  shape  of  a cylinder. 

Dentals.  The  small  square  blocks  or  teeth  cut  in  the 
bed  mould  or  cornices,  pediments,  &c. 

Development.  The  unrolling  or  laying  out  of  a surface 
upon  a plane,  so  that  every  point  of  the  surface  may 
coincide  with  the  plane. 

Diagonal.  A straight  line  drawn  through  a plane  fig- 
ure, joining  two  opposite  angles. 

Diameter.  A straight  line  passing  through  the  centre 
of  a curvilinear  figure,  and  dividing  the  figure  sym- 


422 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


metrically  into  two  equal  parts,  terminating  in  the  cir- 
cumference on  each  side,  as  that  of  a circle  or  ellipse. 

Diminution  of  a Column.  The  gradual  contraction  of 
the  diameter  of  a column,  so  that  the  upper  diameter 
is  less  than  the  lower. 

Dome.  The  spherical  or  convex  roof  raised  over  a cir- 
cular or  polygonal  building.  There  is  great  variety 
in  the  forms  of  domes,  both  in  plan  and  section.  See 
also  Cupola. 

Draft.  A margin  on  the  surface  of  a stone  dressed  to 
the  width  of  the  chisel  or  bolster,  for  the  purpose  of  di- 
recting its  reduction  to  the  required  surface. 

Dressed.  A term  which  expresses  the  preparation  a 
stone  has  undergone,  before  fixing  in  its  position  in  the 
building. 

Edge.  The  meeting  in  an  external  angle  of  two  planes 
or  surfaces  of  a solid. 

Elevation.  A geometrical  projection  drawn  on  a plane 
perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 

Ellipse  or  Ellipsis.  One  of  the  conic  sections,  pro- 
duced by  cutting  a cone  by  a plane  passing  obliquely 
through  the  opposite  sides.  It  may  be  divided  into  two 
equal  and  similar  parts,  by  a diameter  drawn  in  any 
direction. 

Entablature.  The  superstructure  which  lies  horizon- 
tally upon  architectural  columns.  It  consists  of  three 
portions : the  architrave,  which  rests  immediately  upon 
the  columns,  the  frieze  or  central  portion,  and  the  cor- 
nice. 

Entasis.  A refined  and  almost  imperceptible  swelling 
of  the  shaft  of  a column. 

Equiangular.  Having  equal  angles. 

Equidistant.  At  equal  distances. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


423 


Equilateral.  Having  equal  sides. 

Extrados.  The  exterior  or  convex  curve  of  an  arch. 

Face-mould.  A pattern  or  templet  defining  the  form  to 
which  a stone  is  to  be  worked.  It  is  usually  made  of 
sheet  zinc. 

Fillet.  A small  moulding  of  square  section.  Also  the 
space  between  two  flutings  in  a column  or  pilaster. 

Finial.  The  top  or  finishing  terminal  to  a gable  or  pin- 
nacle. 

Flush.  The  bedding  of  masonry  blocks  in  mortar  or 
cement,  completely  filling  in  all  interstices  in  the  beds 
and  joints. 

The  term  is  also  used  to  signify  the  breaking  off  or 
chipping  any  portion  of  a dressed  stone. 

Flute.  A perpendicular  hollow  or  channel;  used  to 
decorate  the  shafts  of  columns  or  pilasters. 

Flyers.  Steps  in  a flight  of  stairs,  whose  edges  are 
parallel  to  each  other. 

Foci.  The  two  points  in  the  major  axis  of  an  ellipse  to 
which  a string  may  be  fixed  so  as  to  describe  the  curve. 

Free-stone.  A stone  which  can  be  freely  worked  in 
any  direction. 

Gargoyle.  A projecting  waterspout  usually  carved  into 
a grotesque  head. 

Gauge.  The  measure  to  which  any  dimension  is  con- 
fined. 

Geometry.  The  science  which  explains,  and  the  art 
which  shows,  the  construction  of  lines,  angles,  plane 
figures,  and  solids. 

Grit-stone.  A coarse  or  fine-grained  sandstone  of  va- 
rious degrees  of  hardness.  It  is  composed  of  small 
grains  of  sand  united  by  a cementing  material  of  an 
argillaceous,  calcareous,  or  siliceous  nature. 


424 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Groin.  The  curved  line  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
two  arches  or  vaults  crossing  each  other  at  any  angle. 

Groined  Vault.  One  formed  by  three  or  more  curved 
surfaces,  so  that  every  two  may  form  a groin,  all  the 
groins  terminating  at  one  extremity  in  a common  point. 

Ground  Line.  The  straight  line  upon  which  the  vertical 
plane  of  projection  is  placed. 

Grout.  A thin  semi-liquid  mortar  copiposed  of  cement 
and  sand  or  lime  and  sand,  and  run  into  the  joints  and 
beds  of  stonework,  filling  all  interstices. 

Gypsum.  Crystals  of  native  sulphate  of  lime.  Being 

s subjected  to  a moderate  heat,  to  expel  the  water  of 
crystallization,  it  forms  plaster  of  Paris,  and,  coming 
in  contact  with  water,  immediately  assumes  a solid 
form.  Of  the  numerous  species,  alabaster  is,  perhaps, 
the  most  abundant. 

Header.  Stones  extending  through  the  thickness  of  a 
wall,  as  bond-stones. 

Heading.  The  vertical  side  of  a stone  perpendicular  to 
the  face. 

Heading  Joint.  The  thin  stratum  of  mortar  between 
the  vertical  surfaces  of  two  adjacent  stones. 

Helix.  A spiral  winding  round  the  surface  of  a cylin- 
der. 

Hemisphere.  One  half  of  a globe  or  sphere,  when  di- 
vided through  its  centre  by  a plane. 

Hypothenuse.  The  longest  side  of  a right-angled  tri- 
angle. The  side  opposite  to  the  right  angle. 

Impost.  The  capital  of  a pier  or  pilaster  from  which  an 
arch  springs. 

Its  form  varies  in  the  different  orders. 

Inclination.  The  angle  contained  between  a line  and 
a plane,  or  between  two  planes. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


4^5 

Intersection.  The  point  on  which  two  lines  meet  and 
cut  each  other. 

The  line  in  which  two  surfaces  cut  or  meet  each 
other. 

Intrados.  The  inner  curve  of  an  arch. 

Jambs.  The  vertical  sides  of  a window  or  door  opening, 
which  connect  the  two  sides  of  a wall. 

Joggle.  An  indentation  made  in  one  stone,  called  the 
she  joggle,  to  receive  the  projection  on  another  termed 
the  he  joggle. 

Joint.  The  surface  of  contact  between  two  adjacent 
blocks  of  stone. 

Jumper.  A long  steel  chisel  used  for  drilling  holes. 

Key  Course.  The  horizontal  range  of  stones  in  the 
summit  of  a vault,  in  which  the  course  is  placed. 

Keystone.  The  highest  central  stone  in  the  crown  of 
an  arch.  See  Arch. 

Label.  The  drip  or  hood  moulding  over  the  apertures 
in  Gothic  windows  and  doors. 

Lancet  Arch.  Narrow  window  heads  shaped  like  the 
point  of  a lancet,  and  characteristic  of  the  Early  Eng- 
lish Gothic  (13th  century). 

Landing.  The  terminating  floor  of  a flight  of  stairs, 
either  above  or  below  it;  or  the  level  part  of  a stair- 
case connecting  one  flight  with  another. 

Level.  A line  or  surface  horizontal  or  parallel  to  the 
horizon ; or  a straight  line  perpendicular  to  a plumb 
line. 

Line  of  Batter.  The  line  of  section  made  by  a plane 
and  the  surface  of  a battering  wall,  the  plane  being  per- 
pendicular both  to  the  surface  of  the  wall  and  to  the 
horizon. 


426 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Lintel.  A stone  which  extends  over  the  aperture  of  a 
door  or  window,  and  carries  the  superincumbent 
weight  by  means  of  its  strength  or  resistance. 

Marble.  A term  limited  by  mineralogists  and  geologists 
to  the  several  varieties  of  carbonate  of  lime,  having 
more  or  less  of  a granular  and  crystalline  texture.  It 
is  susceptible  of  a very  fine  polish,  and  the  varieties  of 
it  are  extremely  numerous. 

Marble,  Polishing  of.  Marbles  are  of  such  varied  na- 
ture that  one  method  of  polishing  cannot  be  adopted 
for  all,  although  the  following  method  will  suffice  for 
Statuary,  Vein,  Sicilian,  St.  Anne’s,  and  most  of  the 
ordinary  colored  marbles  in  general  use. 

The  wrought  surface  is  rubbed  with  fine  sharp  sand 
and  water,  until  all  the  marks  of  the  chisel  or  saw  are 
removed,  and  an  even  face  is  produced;  it  is  then 
“grounded,”  that  is,  rubbed  with  grit  stones  of  varying 
degrees  of  fineness,  commencing  with  the  coarse  or 
“first  grit,”  next  the  “second  grit,”  which  is  a little 
finer,  and  then  finishing  with  “snake”  or  “Water  of 
Ayr”  stone.  Particular  care  must  be  taken  that  in  each 
process  of  “gritting”  the  marks  or  scratches  of  its  pre- 
decessor are  removed,  so  that  when  the  surface  is 
“snaked”  no  scratches  whatever  are  visible,  but  left 
quite  smooth,  for  upon  the  careful  “gritting”  depends 
the  success  of  the  ultimate  polish. 

The  polishing  is  lastly  effected  by  rubbing  with  a pad 
of  felt  sprinkled  with  putty  powder  (calcined  tin) 
moistened  with  water,  until  the  gloss  or  natural  polish 
is  obtained. 

The  polishing  of  marble  adds  greatly  to  its  beauty, 
inasmuch  as  its  delicate  figuring,  and  gradations  of  rich 
coloring,  are  brought  out  and  heightened  by  the 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


427 

process,  which  thus  makes  it  so  valuable  as  a decorative 
material. 

Masonry.  The  art  of  shaping,  arranging,  and  uniting 
stones,  in  the  construction  of  walls  and  other  parts  of 
buildings. 

Metopes.  The  square  spaces  between  triglyphs  in  the 
frieze  of  the  Doric  order ; sometimes  applied  to  the 
sculptures  fitted  into  these  spaces. 

Modillion.  A projecting  enriched  bracket  in  the  soffit 
of  the  top  bed  of  a cornice. 

Monolith.  Consisting  of  one  stone. 

Mortise.  A sinking  in  a stone  to  receive  a correspond- 
ing projection. 

Mould.  A templet  or  pattern  defining  the  form  of  the 
stone  which  is  to  be  worked.  It  is  usually  made  of 
sheet  zinc. 

Moulding.  The  outline  or  contour  given  to  an  angle 
whether  a projection  or  a cavity. 

Mouldings  may  be  generally  resolved  into  three  ele- 
mentary forms — hollow,  round,  and  square — and  it  is 
upon  the  choice,  arrangement,  and  proportion  of  these 
forms  that  beauty  or  ugliness  depends.  Of  the  two 
main  principles  in  connection  with  mouldings,  namely, 
projection  and  recession,  the  former  is  generally 
adopted  in  Classical  and  Renaissance  architecture,  and 
the  latter  in  Gothic.  The  most  perfect  profiles  are  such 
as  are  composed  of  few  mouldings,  varied  and  alter- 
nating both  in  form  and  size,  fitly  applied  with  regard 
to  their  uses,  and  so  disposed  that  the  straight  and 
curved  members  succeed  each  other  alternately.  In 
every  profile  there  should  be  a prominent  member,  to 
which  all  the  others  should  be  subservient,  and  appear 


428 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


to  support  and  fortify,  or  to  shelter  it  from  injury 
by  the  weather. 

Mullion.  The  upright  post  or  bars  of  stone  which 
subdivide  a window  into  two  or  more  lights.  See  also 
Transom. 

Mural.  Belonging  or  attached  to  a wall. 

Mutule.  A projecting  ornament  in  a Doric  cornice, 
somewhat  resembling  the  end  of  a timber  beam ; it  oc- 
cupies the  place  of  a modillion  in  the  other  orders. 

Natural  Bed  of  a Stone.  The  direction  in  which  the 
natural  strata  lie  when  in  the  quarry. 

The  line  of  the  planes  of  cleavage. 

Newel.  The  vertical  column  or  pillar  about  which,  in 
a winding  stair,  the  steps  turn,  and  receive  support 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top. 

The  newel  step  in  an  open  stair  is  the  bottom  one ; 
it  is  generally  curvilinear  on  plan. 

Niche.  A semicircular  or  hollow  recess  generally  with- 
in the  thickness  of  a wall,  for  a statue,  vase,  or  other 
ornament. 

Normal.  A right  line  perpendicular  to  the  tangent  of  a 
curve. 

Ordinate.  A line  drawn  from  any  part  of  the  circum- 
ference of  an  ellipse  or  other  conic  section,  perpendicu- 
lar to,  and  across  the  axis  to  the  other  side. 

Parabola.  One  of  the  three  conic  sections. 

An  open  curve  of  which  both  of  its  branches  may  be 
extended  infinitely  without  ever  meeting. 

It  is  produced  by  cutting  a cone  by  a plane  parallel 
to  one  of  its  sides,  and  so  named  because  its  axis  is 
parallel  to  the  side  of  the  cone. 

Parallel.  Lines,  surfaces,  &c.,  that  are  in  every  part 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


429 

equidistant  from  each  other,  and  extended  in  the  same 
direction. 

Pediment.  A triangular,  or  gabled  termination  to  a 
building,  sometimes  also  placed  over  doors,  windows, 
porticoes,  &c. 

Perpendicular.  A line  at  right  angles  to  a given  line. 

Pier,  Pillar.  See  Column. 

Pilaster.  A square  column  usually  attached  to  a wall 
from  which  it  projects.  In  most  cases  it  corresponds 
to  the  columns  of  its  order,  having  a similar  capital, 
shaft,  and  base. 

Plane.  A perfectly  flat  or  level  surface,  coinciding  in 
every  direction  with  a straight  line. 

Plinth.  The  base  of  a wall,  column,  &c. 

Profile.  The  contour  outline  of  mouldings  taken  at 
right  angles  to  their  length. 

Projection.  The  art  of  representing  any  object  on  a 
plane  by  means  of  straight  lines,  drawn  from  all  visible 
parts  of  those  objects  to  intersect  the  plane  of  projec- 
tion. 

Quadrant.  The  fourth  part  of  a circle ; an  arc  of  ninety 
degrees. 

Quoins.  The  courses  of  stone  to  any  external  angle  of  a 
building. 

Radiating  Joints.  Those  joints  which  tend  to  a center. 

Radius.  A right  line  drawn  from  the  center  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a circle.  The  semidiameter  of  a circle 
or  sphere. 

Raking  Mouldings.  Mouldings  which  run  in  an  in- 
clined position. 

Rib.  A narrow  arch-formed  bar  projecting  beyond  the 
surface  of  a vault,  to  mark  its  intersection  and  to  add 
strength. 


430 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Rustic  Quoins.  The  coursed  stones  to  the  external 
angles  of  a building,  projecting  beyond  the  face  of  the 
wall. 

Sandstone.  A stone  composed  of  grains  of  sand,  united 
with  other  mineral  substances,  cemented  together  by  a 
material  of  an  argillaceous,  calcareous,  or  siliceous 
nature. 

Scribe.  To  scratch  in  on  the  stone,  with  a sharp  pointed 
tool,  the  profile  of  a mould,  templet,  &c. 

Section.  The  figure  formed  by  cutting  a solid  by  a 
plane. 

Segment  of  a Circle.  A portion  of  a circle  contained 
by  an  arc  and  its  chord. 

Setting.  A term  used  to  denote  the  fixing  of  dressed 
stones  in  their  proper  position  in  the  walls  of  buildings. 

Shaft.  The  cylindrical  part  of  a column  between  the 
base  and  the  capital. 

Soffit  or  Sofite.  The  under  surface  of  any  part  of  a 
ceiling,  architrave,  arch,  vault,  stairs,  &c. 

Soffit  Joints.  Those  joints  which  appear  on  the  under 
surface. 

Span.  The  distance  or  dimension  across  the  opening  of 
an  arch,  window,  or  aperture. 

Spandrel.  A triangular-shaped  piece.  The  irregular  tri- 
angular space  between  the  curve  of  an  arch  and  the 
rectangle  inclosing  it ; or  the  space  between  the  outer 
mouldings  of  two  contiguous  arches  and  a horizontal 
line  above  them. 

Spiral.  The  helix  or  screw. 

A curve  consisting  of  one  or  more  revolutions  round 
a fixed  point  and  gradually  receding  from  it. 

Spire.  A steeple  diminishing  as  it  ascends,  generally 
octagonal  on  plan. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 


43i 

Splay.  A slope  making  with  the  face  of  a wall  an  angle 
less  than  a right  angle. 

Stair.  One  step  of  a series  by  means  of  which  a person 
ascends  or  descends  to  a different  landing. 

A series  of  steps  for  passing  from  one  part  of  a 
building  to  another. 

Staircase.  A flight  of  stairs  with  their  supporting 
framework,  casing,  balusters,  &c.,  which  enable*- pen 
sons  to  ascend  or  descend  from  one  floor  to  another. 

Stilted  Arch.  An  arch  in  which  the  springing  line  or 
curve  does  not  commence  for  some  distance  above  the 
level  of  the  impost. 

Stone  Cutting.  The  art  of  hewing  or  dressing  stones 
to  their  intended  form. 

Straight-Edge.  A rule  whose  edge  coincides  with  a 
straight  line. 

Stretcher.  A stone  laid  with  its  longer  face  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  wall. 

Tangent.  A straight  line  which  touches  a curve  without 
cutting  it. 

Tangent  Plane.  A plane  which  touches  a curved  sur- 
face without  being  able  to  cut  it. 

Templet.  A mould  giving  the  contour  to  which  stones 
are  to  be  wrought. 

Transom.  A horizontal  bar  across  a window  of  two  or 
more  lights.  See  also  Mullion. 

Triangle.  A plane  figure  consisting  of  three  sides. 

Trihedral.  A solid  angle  consisting  of  three  plane 
angles. 

Trisection.  The  division  into  three  equal  parts. 

Tympanum.  The  triangular  face  of  a pediment  included 
between  the  horizontal  and  raking  mouldings. 


432 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Vault.  An  arched  roof  or  ceiling  over  an  apartment, 
so  constructed  that  the  stones  of  which  it  is  composed 
sustain  and  keep  each  other  in  their  places. 

Vertical  Plane.  A plane  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 

Volute.  A spiral  scroll  as  in  the  Ionic  capital. 

Voussoir.  A wedge  shaped  stone  forming  one  of  the 
blocks  of  an  arch. 

Weathering.  A sloping  surface  of  stone  employed  to 
cover  the  set-off  of  a wall  or  buttress,  and  protect  it 
from  the  effects  of  the  weather. 

Welch  Groin.  A groin  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
two  cylindrical  vaults,  one  being  of  greater  height  than 
the  other. 

Winder.  One  in  a flight  of  steps  which  are  curved  on 
plan,  having  each  tread  broader  at  one  end  than  the 
other. 

Wreathed  Column.  Twisted  in  the  form  of  a screw 
or  spiral 


APPENDIX 


In  order  to  make  this  book  as  useful  as  possible  I have  thought 
it  proper  to  add  this  Appendix  to  it,  which,  in  my  opinion,  offers 
the  best  and  most  simple  solutions  to  the  problems  discussed 
in  this  department.  It  is  taken  from  the  works  of  Wm.  R. 
Purchase,  one  of  the  best  known  authorities  on  Cut  Stone  Ma- 
sonry. The  subjects  dealt  with  are  of  the  most  difficult  kind 
known  to  the  art  of  masonry,  but  here  they  are  reduced  to 
the  simplest  manner  possible,  and  the  rules  are  made  so  plain 
that  any  ordinary  workman  should  be  able  to  thoroughly  under- 
stand them. 

ARCHES 

CIRCULAR  ON  PLAN,  OR  ARCHES  OF  DOUBLE 
CURVATURE 

To  describe  the  construction  of  a Semi-circular  Arch  in  a 
Cylindrical  Wall,  the  development  of  which  on  convex  or 
outside  face  is  a semi-circle,  and  on  concave  or  inside  face  is  a 
semi-ellipse,  the  soffit  radiating  to  a center  at  springing,  and 
the  crown  of  the  arch  level  or  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical  face 
of  the  wall. 

Fig.  1. — Shows  plan  of  the  arch,  BCD  being  the  opening, 
the  arch  radiating  to  O,  the  center  of  the  cylinder. 

To  set  up  the  Elevation  on  the  Development  for  the  Face  Moulds. 

Fig.  2. — Develop  the  segment  A B C of  convex  face  (Fig.  1), 
setting  out  the  length  on  springing  line  as  A B C from  C as  the 
center;  erect  a perpendicular  as  center  line,  and  describe  with 
C B as  radius  half  of  the  semi-circle.  Set  off  the  joints  radiating 
to  the  center  C corresponding  to  the  number  of  arch  joints  re- 
quired, which  in  this  example  is  seven.  The  square  bonding 
d a,  / b,  g c of  vertical  and  horizontal  joints  may  be  of  varied 
sizes.  The  radiating  joints  (here  shown)  are  made  equal  in 
length  from  the  soffit,  and  for  this  purpose  from  the  center  0 
describe  a quadrant,  cutting  the  joints  at  ah  c. 

433 


434 


APPENDIX 


To  find  the  Development  of  Concave  Face. 

Fig.  3. — Divide  the  quadrant  B K (Fig.  2)  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts — in  this  example  seven — and  draw  the  ordinates 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  projecting  the  same  on  to  the  springing  line,  and 
transfer  these  to  the  segment  line  B C on  plan  (Fig.  1)  as  1,  2, 


DEVELOPMENTS 


3,  4,  5,  6,  and  from  these  points  draw  radiating  lines  from  the 
center  O,  cutting  the  segment  B'  C'  at  1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  6';  draw 
the  developed  length  of  B'  C'  on  springing  line  (which  is  also 
equal  to  C'  D'  and  is  half  of  the  inside  face)  from  C to  D'  j transfer 


APFExMDIX 


435 


1',  2',  3',  4',  5',  6'  from  Fig.  1,  and  draw  the  ordinates  -of  equal 
height  to  those  of  Fig.  2,  cutting  P ig.  3 at  la,  2a,  3a,  4a,  etc.,  through 
the  points  la,  2a,  3a,  4a,  etc.;  draw  the  half  of  semi-ellipse,  which 
gives  the  curve  of  the  arris  to  the  soffit. 

The  length  of  the  joints  in  Fig.  3 is  determined  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  Fig.  2 — namely,  by  means  of  ordinates.  One  joint 
is  here  given  as  an  example: 

From  A No.  2 A (Fig.  2)  drop  a perpendicular  cutting  the 
springing  line  at  2 C;  and  from  2 C to  2 transfer  to  2 C and  2 
on  the  segment  line  of  plan  (Fig.  1),  and  draw  radiating  lines 
from  2 C to  the  center  0,  cutting  the  segment  A'  C'  at  2 d;  trans- 
fer the  distance  from  2 d to  2'  on  to  the  springing  line  (Fig.  3). 
Set  up  ordinate  and  make  equal  in  height  to  a on  Fig.  2,  and 
from  2 A to  A'  (Fig.  3)  draw  joint  line,  which  also  radiates  from 
the  center  C. 

The  moulds  required  for  working  each  arch 
block  are  a bed  mould  and  two  face  moulds 
(one  to  the  convex  and  one  to  the  concave  face); 
these  are  already  set  out  on  plan  and  in  developed 
elevations,  but  now  require  separating. 

As  an  example,  No.  1 A (Fig.  2)  is  the  springer. 

For  the  bed  mould  take  A B 2 and  A'  B'  2'  from 
plan  (Fig.  1),  and  transfer  to  1 C (Fig.  4). 

The  dotted  line  B B'  shows  the  line  of  the  soffit 
on  the  bottom  bed,  the  line  a a ' the  line  of  the 
arch  joint  on  the  top  bed,  A A'  the  line  of  radiat- 
ing vertical  joint,  and  2 2'  the  line  of  arris  of 
the  arch  joint.  This  gives  the  plan  of  a segment 
of  a hollow  cylinder  to  the  extreme  size  of  the 
stone. 

No.  1 A (Fig.  4)  is  the  face  mould  for  convex 
face,  No.  1 B (Fig.  4)  is  the  face  mould  for  con- 
cave face,  and  both  of  these  are  transferred  from  1 A and  1 B 
(Figs.  2 and  3),  with  the  addition  of  the  square  line  2 2 and  2'  2'. 

The  stone  for  the  arch  block  should  be  large  enough  to  work 
the  bed  mould  square  through;  if  there  is  a “wanty”  corner  in 
the  rough  block,  this  may  be  arranged  for  in  the  corner  where 
the  stone  has  to  be  cut  away  for  the  soffit  or  the  top  joint. 

Work  the  two  beds  bottom  and  top  parallel  to  each  other 
and  of  the  height  of  the  face  mouM,  scribe  in  the  bed  mould 
No.  1 C on  both  beds  (to  be  correct  this  should  be  boned  in), 


Fig.  4- 


436 


APPENDIX 


the  vertical  joint  A d being  at  right  angles  to  the  bed.  Next 
work  the  convex  and  concave  faces  through,  and  also  the  ra- 
diating joint  A A',  the  block  at  this  stage  being  a portion  of  a 
Aollow  cylinder  similar  to  sketch  (Fig.  7). 

Now  scribe  in  the  face  moulds  1 A on  the  convex  and  1 B on 
the  concave  faces  (Fig.  4);  next  work  the  arch  joint  a e through 
(this  will  have  a slight  twist);  and  lastly,  for  the  soffit  cut  in  a 
draft  Be  on  convex  and  B'  e'  on  concave  faces,  and  work  the 
surface  through,  thus  completing  the  springer. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  soffit  is  a winding  or  warped  sur- 
face, and  it  will  be  worked  similar  to  the  soffit  of  winder  step, 
as  previously  described. 

To  work  the  Second  Arch  Stone , No.  2 A (Fig.  2). 

For  the  bed  mould  2 C (Fig. 

5),  project  the  extreme  points 
a and  4,  No.  2 A (Fig.  2)  on  to 
springing  line;  transfer  these 
to  the  segment  line  A C on 
the  plan  (Fig.  1).  This  gives 
from  2 C to  4 and  2 d to  4', 
which  encloses  the  bed  mould; 
a a ' is  the  vertical  joint  and 
arris  of  the  arch  joint  a 2,  the 
dotted  line  2a  is  the  horizontal 


7 ryr-* 

5 line  of  the  joint  on  soffit  at 

i \ 

FAC 6 PfOLD  \ 

bottom,  and  the  line  6 6'  is  the 

i \ 

1 1 

2A  \ 

arris  at  the  top  of  arch  joint, 

FAC jC  MOULD  \ 

1 / 
1 / 

4 4 a is  the  bottom  arris  of  the 

V ! 3 A \ 

\ 1 J 

V.  1 / 

top  joint  to  soffit. 
c No.  2 A CFig.  5)  is  the  face 

\ * 
\ • 
\ 1 

Fig,  5- 


Fig.  6. 


mould  for  the  convex  face, 
and  No.  2 B (Fig.  5)  is  the 

face  mould  for  the  concave  face;  both  of  these  are  transferred 
from  2 A and  2B  (Figs.  2 and  3),  with  the  addition  of  the 
square  line  4 6,  4 C,  and  4 1,  4 2. 

Work  the  top  bed  first  / 6,  4 6,  and  take  the  bottom  bed  a 2, 
4 C parallel  to  the  top  and  of  the  height  of  the  face  mould  (this 
is  a surface  of  operation,  all  being  cut  away  except  arris  2 2 a, 
which  must  be  kept  true  across  the  bed).  Scribe  the  bed  mould 
No.  2 C (Fig.  5)  on  both  beds.  Now  work  the  two  faces  convex 
and  concave  through,  and  the  radiating  joint  a a'  square  with 


APPENDIX 


437 


the  top  bed,  bringing  it  again  into  the  shape  of  a portion  of 
hollow  cylinder,  as  in  sketch  (Fig.  7). 

Scribe  the  face  mould  2 A on  the  convex  and  2 B (Fig.  5)  on 
concave  faces.  Work  the  arch  joints  a 2 and  b 4,  and  for  the 
soffit  cut  in  the  draft  2 4 on  the  convex  and  2 a,  4 a on  concave 
faces,  and  work  through  as  previously  described. 

The  other  arch  stone  3 A and  keystone  are  worked  in  a similar 
manner,  the  general  principles  of  working  being  the  same. 

Note. — The  radiating  joint  lines  on  the  developments  (Figs.  2 
and  3),  to  be  geometrically  correct,  should  not  be  straight,  being 
slightly  curved.  This  is  apparent  on  cutting  a cylinder  by  a 
right  line  obliquely,  the  development  of  which  is  a compound 
curve;  but  in  this  case  the  curve  is  so  slight  as  to  be  scarcely 
perceptible,  and  need  not  in  the  present  and  the  following  ex- 
ample be  taken  notice  of. 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  8. 

To  construct  a Semi-circtjlar  Arch  in  a Cylindrical  Wall, 
whose  line  of  soffit  on  the  plan  is  parallel  to  the  axis,  the  axes 
of  the  two  cylinders  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles. 

Fig.  9. — Shows  the  plan  of  the  arch,  BCD  being  the  opening. 

Figs.  10  and  11  are  the  developed  elevations. 

In  order  to  prevent  confusion  with  Figs.  9,  10,  and  11,  and 
to  make  matters  easier  of  explanation,  three  diagrams  are  here 
shown,  containing  Fig.  15,  Figs.  16,  17,  and  Figs.  18,  19,  these 
being  slightly  exaggerated  to  show  more  clearly  the  working. 

Let  Fig.  15  be  the  plan  of  segment  of  cylinder,  with  the  semi- 
cylinder penetrating  the  same  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  at 
a e,  b d. 

Let  Fig.  16  be  the  square  section  of  the  quadrant  of  cylinder, 
and  divide  this  into  any  unequal  number  of  equal  parts  corre- 
sponding to  the  number  of  arch  stones  required  in  Figs.  10  and 
11,  which  in  this  example  is  seven,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  pro- 


438 


APPENDIX 


ARCHES  CIRCULAR  ON  PLAN 


DEVELOPMENTS 


ject  on  to  the  segment  line  a c b on  plan  (Fig.  15),  as  C 6,  5,  4, 
3,  2,  1;  transfer  this  to  the  springing  line  a b,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7 
(Fig.  17),  which  is  now  the  developed  line;  erect  ordinates,  and 
make  them  equal  in  height  to  the  ordinates  of  the  square  section, 
as  1',  2',  3',  4',  etc.;  draw  line  through  the  intersecting  points 
1',  2',  3',  4',  etc.,  giving  the  curve  required  on  the  development 
at  the  point  of  penetration  for  the  outside  or  convex  face  of 
cylinder. 


APPENDIX 


439 


For  the  development  of  the  inside  or  concave  face,  let  Fig.  18 
be  the  square  section,  divided  into  seven  equal  parts,  projecting 
the  ordinates  as  before.  Transfer  from  Fig.  15  la,  2a,  3a,  4a,  5a, 
6a,  7°  to  the  springing  line  (Fig.  19),  erect  ordinates  and  make 
them  equal  in  height  to  those  of  square  section  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc., 
and  through  the  intersecting  points  la,  2a,  3a,  4a , etc.,  draw  the 
line  giving  curve  required  at  the  point  of  penetration  for  the 
inside  or  concave  face  of  cylinder. 

For  the  joints  draw  radiating  lines  at  2,  4,  6 (Figs.  16  and  18), 
and  to  make  them  of  equal  length  draw  a quadrant  line  with 
radius  of  the  square  section  as  / g h,  project  fgh  on  to  plan 
(Fig.  15)  as  } g h,  and  transfer  to  the  springing  line  (Figs.  17  and 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


19);  erect  ordinates  at  f g h,  making  equal  in  height  to  those  of 
the  square  section.  Next  draw  the  joint  lines  h 2',  g 4',  / c'  on 
Fig.  17,  and  h 2a,  g 4a,  and  / c'  (Fig.  19);  the  developed  length 
of  joint  is  thus  obtained. 

To  set  up  the  Elevation  on  the  Developments  for  the  Face  Moulds. 

Figs  10  and  11. — Let  A E'  be  the  springing  line,  CK  the 
center  line,  and  L K M dotted  line  the  square  section  of  the 
cylinder  whose  center  is  C.  For  the  development  BI(D  proceed 
as  previously  described,  and  divide  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts  for  the  arch  stones  required — which  in  this  example  is 
seven — and  draw  the  joints;  the  square  holding  ab,  b /,  fl  may 


440 


APPENDIX 


be  set  out  at  will,  but  should  be  set  out  from  the  inside  or  con- 
cave face,  so  as  to  obtain  a parallel  arch  joint. 

The  joint  c b',  No.  2 C (Fig.  13),  which  is  the  arch  joint  cut- 
ting out  to  the  vertical  joint  b't  illustrates  this. 

The  moulds  for  working  each  arch  block  are  a bed  mould  and 
two  face  moulds.  These  are  already  set  out  on  plan  (Fig.  9) 
and  elevations  (Figs.  10  and  11),  except  the  addition  of  a square 
line  to  the  extreme  size. 

To  work  the  springer: 

For  the  bed  mould  take  A c,  B d from  the  plan  (Fig.  9)  and 
transfer  to  1 C (Fig.  12);  the  dotted  line  B B'  is  line  of  the  soffit 
on  the  bottom  bed,  the  line  c cf  is  the  line  of 
joint  on  top  bed,  the  line  d d ' is  the  line  of 
arris  of  the  arch  joint  in  soffit,  and  the  line 
A A'  is  the  radiating  vertical  joint.  No.  1 A 
(Fig.  12)  is  the  face  mould  for  convex  face, 
and  No.  1 B,  Fig.  12,  is  the  face  mould  for 
concave  face;  both  of  these  are  transferred 
from  1 A and  1 B (Figs.  10  and  11),  with  the 
addition  of  the  square  line  e e '. 

Work  the  two  beds  (bottom  and  top)  par- 
allel to  each  other,  and  of  the  height  of  the 
face  mould.  Scribe  the  bed  mould  No.  1 C 
(Fig.  12),  on  both  beds,  and  work  the  two 
faces  convex  and  concave  through,  and  also 
the  vertical  joint  A a,  which  must  be  at  right 
angles  to  beds;  this  will  form  a portion  of  a 
hollow  cylinder  similar  to  sketch,  Fig.  7.  Now 
scribe  in  the  face  moulds  1 A and  1 B (Fig.  12), 
on  the  convex  and  concave  faces  respectively, 
and  work  the  arch  joint  c d through,  and  for 
arrises  to  the  lines,  and  work  drafts  parallel 
to  the  bed  B B'  until  the  whole  of  the  soffit  is  finished. 

In  this  arch  the  soffit  is  not  a winding  surface. 

To  work  the  Second  Arch  Stone  No  2 A (Fig.  10). 

Let  No.  2 C (Fig.  13)  be  the  bed  mould,  project  the  extreme 
points  bhy  No.  2 A (Fig.  10),  on  to  springing  line  AC.  This 
being  a developed  face,  it  will  require  folding  back  on  to  the 
segment  line  ACE  of  plan  (Fig  9),  as  b dh,  and  transfer  this 
to  No.  2 C,  which  gives  the  bed  mould. 

No.  2 A (Fig.  13)  is  the  face  mould  for  convex  face,  and  No. 


\ BED  MOULQ 


\ 3f 


APPENDIX 


441 


ARCHES  CIRCULAR  ON  PLAN 


442 


APPENDIX 


2 B (Fig.  13)  is  the  face  mould  for  concave  face,  and  both  of 
these  are  transferred  from  2 A and  2 B (Figs.  10  and  11),  with 
the  addition  of  the  square  line  l. 

Work  the  two  beds  (bottom  and  top)  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  to  the  height  of  the  face  mould.  The  bottom  bed  is  worked 
as  a surface  of  operation  for  the  application  of  the  bed  mould, 
and  it  is  all  cut  away  except  the  arris  d df . Scribe  the  bed 
mould  2 C (Fig.  13)  in  on  each  bed,  and  work  the  two  faces 
convex  and  concave  through,  and  scribe  in  the  face  moulds  2 A 
and  2 B (Fig.  13). 

Work  the  vertical  joint  b b square  with  either  the  top  or  bot- 
tom beds,  and  work  the  bed  b c and  joint  c d;  then  joint  g h, 
and,  lastly,  soffit  d h. 

Fig.  14. — Nos.  3 A,  3 B,  and  3 C are  the  face  moulds  and  bed 
mould  of  the  third  arch  stone,  and  together  with  the  keystone 
are  projected  and  worked  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the 
foregoing  Nos.  1 and  2 stones. 

It  will  be  advisable  for  the  student  to  work  small  models, 
which  should  be  constructed  to  scale  in  plaster,  clay,  or  other 
soft  material.  The  moulds  for  these  models  may  be  cut  out  of 
stout  drawing  paper,  and  in  their  application'will  be  found  the 
best  method  of  obtaining  knowledge  of  these  subjects. 


SKEW  ARCH  AND  NICHES 

To  construct  a Semi-circular  Arch  Rib,  the  oblique  angle 
of  which  does  not  extend  more  than  ten  or  twelve  degrees  from 
a right  angle,  the  joints  being  parallel  to  axis,  and  in  the  same 
planes. 

This  is  not  a difficult  problem,  as  the  arch  within  these  limits 
may  be  set  out  and  worked  as  a right  arch;  but  beyond  these  a 
different  principle  of  construction  is  necessary. 

Fig.  1. — Shows  the  elevation  of  the  arch,  which  is  a semi- 
circle. 

Fig.  2. — Shows  the  plan  of  the  arch,  B G and  D J being  the 
opening,  B D and  G J the  inclination  or  angle  of  skew,  E and  F 
the  centers,  A and  H the  outer  face  line  of  the  arch,  and  C K 
the  inner  face  line  of  the  arch. 

There  is  no  difference  in  the  outer  and  inner  faces  of  the  arch, 
both  being  alike,  but  the  terms  are  here  used  for  purpose  of 
explanation. 


APPENDIX 


443 


Project  A C,  B D and  G J,  H K from  the  plan  to  the  spring- 
ing line  (Fig.  1),  as  a c,  b d and  g j,  h k,  with  e as  center,  and 
e a and  e b as  radius,  describe  the  semi-circles  a oh  and  b m g, 
for  the  outside  face,  and  with  / as  center,  and  the  same  radius, 
describe  the  semi-circles  c p k and  d n j,  for  the  inside  face. 
For  the  joints,  divide  the  arch  into  any  convenient  number  of 
equal  parts — in  this  example  seven — as  qr  s tuv  on  line  b m g 
of  intrados,  and  with  the  same  divisions  repeat  on  the  line  dnj 


SKEW  ARCH 


_ ELEVATION  _ 


FIG.  2 
PLAN 


as  q'  r'  s'  t'  u ' v' ; from  the  center  e draw  radiating  lines  through 
these  points,  and  produce  to  the  outside  curve  or  extrados  for 
the  outside,  and  for  the  inside  of  the  arch;  repeat  the  same  from 
the  center  /.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  direction  of  joints  is 
perfectly  horizontal,  the  lines  q q',  rr'f  ss',  etc.,  being  level; 
the  radiating  lines  and  joints  are  also  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  are  therefore  in  the  same  place. 

This  is  all  the  setting  out  required,  with  the  exception  of  the 
joint  moulds. 


444 


APPENDIX 


To  work  the  Arch  Stones. 

Fig.  3. — Let  No.  1 L be  the  face  mould  of  the  springer  and 
A and  B the  joint  moulds. 

The  face  mould  1 L is  transferred  from  the  elevation  Fig.  1, 
and  the  bottom  bed  or  joint  mould  A,  from  plan  (Fig.  2);  for  the 
joint  mould  B,  draw  a line  parallel  to  joint  e'  /',  and  project 
e'  /'  and  g'  h'  as  e / and  g h,  of  an  equal  and  parallel  thickness, 
as  X X at  A and  B. 

Work  a ' V e'  /'  outside  face  of  springer  No.  1 L,  to  a plane 
surface,  and  cdgh  inside,  face  parallel  to  it;  scribe  the  face 
mould  into  extreme  size  on  each  face  as  a'  6!  e ' g ' h! ; scribe  in 
the  segment  line  /'  giving  arris  of  soffit  on  outside  face  (this 
may  be  done  by  drawing  the  mould  back,  as  h' d'  is  the  same 
segment  and  also  the  same  length  as  /'  h') 


Work  the  bottom  bed  A,  which  is  horizontal,  and  square  with 
the  vertical  face,  and  scribe  in  the  bed  mould  as  abed,  which 
will  coincide  with  the  lines  on  the  face  mould;  now  work  the 
top  joint  B;  this  from  the  outside  face  will  be  full  of  the  square, 
or,  in  other  words,  it  makes  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  vertical 
face.  This,  however,  is  given  by  the  face  mould,  as  e'  /'  is  line 
of  joint  on  the  outside,  and  gf  hf  on  the  inside. 

Scribe  in  the  joint  mould  B as  e { g h,  and  work  the  soffit 
b' d'  /'  h’  through,  as  in  a right  arch,  and  finish  with  the  back 
joint  af  c'  e'  g'. 

Fig.  4. — No.  2 L is  worked  similar  to  No.  1 L;  the  top  joint 


APPENDIX 


445 


mould  B of  No.  1 is  the  bottom  joint  mould  of  No.  2,  and  the 
top  joint  mould  C of  No.  2 is  the  bottom  joint  mould  of  No.  3, 
and  so  on — this  is  self-evident.  The  bevels  of  these  joints  are 
found  by  projecting  the  points  of  the  face  mould,  as  j hi  m, 
etc.,  as  before  described. 

Begin  by  working  the  two  vertical  faces  e f j k and  g him 
parallel  to  each  other,  scribe  in  the  face  mould  No.  2 to  the 
extreme  size,  as  e f h j l m,  and  work  both  joints  B and  C;  the 
top  joint  C is  full  of  the  square,  whilst  the  bottom  joint  B is 
slack  of  the  square  from  the  outside  face,  the  amount  of  the 
obtuse  and  acute  angle  being  given  on  the  face  mould. 

Fig.  5. — No.  3 L and  the  keystone  are  worked  precisely  simi- 
lar to  the  foregoing. 

One  set  of  moulds  for  one-half  of  the  arch  only  is  required, 
as  the  four  face  moulds  and  the  four  joint  moulds  will  work  the 
complete  arch;  being  a plain  arch  without  mouldings,  the  stones 
are  reversible;  this  is  apparent  on  looking  at  the  elevation,  but 
should  there  be  an  architrave  moulding  on  one  face,  a mould 
to  each  stone  is  then  required. 

To  construct  a Spherical  Niche  in  a straight  wall  with  hori- 
zontal splay  beds,  and  with  vertical  joints. 

Figs.  6 and  7. — Show  the  elevation  and  plan  of  the  niche. 

Let  A E be  the  face  line  of  the  niche  on  plan  (Fig.  7),  B D 
the  opening  and  C the  center;  with  C B or  C D as  radius,  and 
C as  center,  describe  a semi-circle  BI(D,  which  is  plan  of  ex- 
treme size  of  inside  of  niche;  project  ABODE  to  the  spring- 
ing line  on  elevation  (Fig.  6),  as  ah  c d e,  and  at  c erect  perpen- 
dicular for  the  center  line.  With  c as  center  and  c h _or  c d as 
radius,  describe  the  semi-circle  b k d for  the  outer  curve,  and 
divide  this  into  five  equal  parts  as  at  / g h i;  from  c draw  radiating 
lines  through  these  points  of  division,  cutting  the  horizontal 
bed  at  Im  no,  giving  the  joints,  the  bevel  of  which  will  be  con- 
tinued horizontally  round  the  niche  as  at  / i and  g h . For  joints 
to  the  plan  draw  ordinates  at  fghi  and  Im,  etc.,  and  project 
them  on  to  line  A E on  plan  (Fig.  7),  as  F G H I and  L M,  etc.; 
at  L F M G describe  the  semi-circles,  giving  the  horizontal  line 
of  splay  joints.  For  dividing  joints  on  the  plan,  take  the  second 
course  first  and  divide  the  line  of  semi-circle  F Q I into  four 
equal  parts  as  P Q R,  and  from  C draw  radiating  lines  through 
these  divisions,  producing  them  on  to  the  line  L N O,  which 
gives  the  joints.  The  springers  1 L and  1 R in  the  first  course 


446 


APPENDIX 


will  require  to  be  about  half  the  depth  of  others  in  the  same 
course,  in  order  to  break  the  bond  (as  will  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  plan);  therefore,  on  the  line  B K D,  set  off,  say,  little 
more  than  half  for  the  two  springers  as  B S and  D V,  dividing 
the  remainder  into  three  equal  parts  as  at  S T U V,  and  draw 
the  lines  through,  radiating  from  the  center  to  the  back,  giving 
the  joints  in  the  bottom  course. 


The  top  course  No.  3 is  in  one  stone,  and  to  prevent  any  tend- 
ency to  slip  out  of  its  place  forward,  the  upper  part  of  bed  may 
be  kept  square;  this  would  require  notching  on  the  inside,  as 
MM2  and  N M 2 on  the  plan,  and  m 44  and  m 5 5 on  the  ele- 
vation. 

The  vertical  joints  are  shown  on  the  elevation  by  projecting 
up  from  the  plan,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  w p x q,  etc. 


APPENDIX 


447 


To  work  the  Springer. 

Fig.  8. — 1 A is  the  bed  mould  transferred  from  the  plan  (Fig. 
7),  the  line  A F being  the  vertical  face  on  the  front,  F W the 
horizontal  line  of  arris  of  soffit  and  splay  joint  on  the  top  bed, 
L O the  outside  line  of  splay  joint  on  top  bed,  the  dotted  line 
B S the  line  of  soffit  on  bottom  bed,  W W'  the  line  of  vertical 
radiating  joint,  and  A A'  the  line  of  vertical  face  joint. 

1 L is  the  face  mould  transferred  from  the  elevation  (Fig.  6), 
which  will  also  apply  as  joint  mould  at  W W'. 

The  form  of  the  stone  required  to  work  this  will  be  a wedge- 
shape  prism,  containing  the  bed  mould  to  the  extreme  size  on 
the  top  bed  as  A F W W';  the  bottom  bed  is  a little  smaller, 
and  is  contained  within  the  lines  A B S W',  and  of  the  extreme 
height  of  the  face  mould  from  a to  a'. 


Begin  by  working  the  front  vertical  face  ABF,  and  scribe 
the  face  mould  1L  on,  as  abfla'.  Work  the  vertical  joint 
A A'  as  a a'  square  with  the  front  face,  and  bottom  and  top 
beds  square  with  the  front  face,  scribing  on  the  bed  mould  1 A, 
and  also  the  inside  vertical  joint  W W',  scribing  in  the  face 
mould  as  abfla'.  It  is  necessary  to  work  the  whole  of  the 
top  bed,  although  a portion  from  l to  / 1 will  be  cut  away  for 
the  splay  joint,  in  order  to  get  horizontal  line  F W at  /;  to  obtain 
this  arris,  square  down  the  concave  line  from  F to  W to  the 
depth  at  /,  or  a draft  from  F to  W may  be  worked  by  the  aid 
of  a template.  This  being  done,  trammel  the  line  / parallel  to 
/ 1,  giving  the  arris  line  required;  the  line  L O is  marked  on  the 


/> 

Fig.  9. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  io. 


448 


APPENDIX 


top  bed  with  the  template,  and  the  splay  joint  from  f to  l then 
worked  off.  The  soffit  now  remains  to  be  worked;  cut  in  the 
drafts  B S on  the  bottom  bed  and  F W on  the  top  bed,  and 
drafts  b f on  the  face  and  joint;  a convex  template  is  used  as  at  g 
for  the  intermediate  drafts,  which  are  cut  in  as  close  as  con- 
venient, until  the  whole  surface  is  worked. 

The  template  g must  not  be  applied  parallel  to  the  joints,  but 
to  lines  radiating  from  the  center. 

The  three  No.  4 stones  will  be  worked  similarly  to  the  fore- 
going; one  vertical  joint  is  worked  first  as  a surface  of  operation, 
instead  of  the  front  face  as  in  the  springer. 

To  work  No.  2 L Stone. 

Fig.  9. — 2 B is  the  bed  mould  transferred  from  the  plan  (Fig. 
7),  the  line  B G being  the  vertical  face  on  the  front,  and  G Y 
the  horizontal  line  of  the  arris  of  soffit  and  the  splay  joint  on 
the  top  bed,  M M'  the  outside  line  of  the  splay  joint  top  bed, 
the  dotted  line  F P the  line  of  soffit  on  bottom  bed,  Y Y'  the 
line  of  vertical  radiating  joint,  and  B B'  the  line  of  vertical 
face  joint. 

2 L is  the  face  mould,  transferred  from  the  elevation  (Fig.  6), 
which  will  also  apply  as  joint  mould  at  Y Y'. 

The  form  of  stone  required  to  work  this  will  be  a wedge-shape 
prism,  containing  the  bed  mould,  to  the  extreme  size  as  B G 
Y Y 1,  and  of  the  extreme  height  of  the  face  mould,  from  / 1 
to  b 1. 

Begin  by  working  the  front  vertical  face,  and  scribe  the  face 
mould  2 L on  as  b 1 b f g m.  Work  the  vertical  joint  b b'  square 
with  the  front  face,  also  the  top  bed,  and  scribe  the  bed  mould 
on.  Work  the  bottom  bed  as  a surface  of  operation;  the  only 
part  required  being  the  arris  of  the  splay  joint,  and  soffit  F P, 
the  rest  of  the  bed  being  cut  away. 

This  is  the  easiest  and  most  accurate  way  of  working,  but 
the  bed  need  not  necessarily  be  worked  as  a whole,  a portion 
only  being  required,  sufficient  to  obtain  the  arris  line  F P;  in 
this  case  the  soffit  F G should  be  worked  after  the  arris  line  is 
drawn  on  the  bed,  by  a convex  template  made  from  / to  g , and 
the  splay  joint  is  worked  from  a beveled  template  made  from 
9 fb- 

The  remaining  portion  of  the  stone  is  worked  as  before  de- 
scribed to  springer. 

The  two  No.  5 stones  are  worked  similarly. 


APPENDIX 


449 


To  work  the  Keystone  No.  3. 

Fig.  10. — 3 C is  the  bed  mould  transferred  from  the  plan 
(Fig.  7),  the  line  MN  being  the  vertical  face  on  the  front, 
M C 2 N the  top  line  of  the  splay  joint,  and  G C 1 H the  line 
of  arris  of  soffit,  and  the  splay  joint  on  bottom. 

No.  3 is  the  face  mould  transferred  from  the  elevation  (Fig.  6), 


Begin  by  working  the  vertical  face  M N,  scribing  in  the  face 
mould  as  ghmn.  Work  the  top  bed  through  square  with  the 
face,  scribing  in  the  bed  mould,  also  the  bottom  bed  parallel 
to  the  top  at  extreme  points  g and  h,  and  with  a template  scribe 
G C H the  arris  of  the  soffit  and  the  splay  joint.  Work  the 
joint  round  te  the  splay  lines,  then  the  soffit  by  cutting  in  the 
draft  g ch  on  the  front,  and  with  a convex  template  made  from 
C to  Cl,  complete  the  surface. 


450 


APPENDIX 


The  niche  need  not  be  jointed  as  here  shown,  for  much  de- 
pends on  its  size,  and  the  size  of  the  stone  convenient  to  use, 
but  the  general  principle  of  working  will  be  the  same. 

To  construct  a Spherical  Niche  in  a straight  wall,  with  joints 
radiating  from  the  center. 

Figs.  11  and  12. — Show  elevation  and  plan  of  the  niche. 

Let  A E be  the  vertical  face  line  of  the  niche  on  the  plan  (Fig. 
12),  B D the  opening,  and  C the  center.  With  C B or  C D as 
a radius,  and  C as  a center,  describe  the  semi-circle  B K D,  which 
is  the  plan  of  extreme  size  of  the  inside  of  niche,  and  project 
ABODE  to  the  springing  line  a e on  the  elevation  (Fig.  11), 


as  ah  c d e.  At  c erect  a perpendicular  for  the  center  line,  and, 
with  c as  center  and  c b or  c d as  radius,  describe  the  semi-circle 
b k d for  the  outer  curve.  With  eyas  a radius  and  c as  the  cen- 
ter, describe  a semi-circle  for  the  center  stone,  which  may  be 
of  any  convenient  size.  Divide  the  semi-circle  b k d into 
seven  equal  parts  as  / g hi  j Z,  and  through  these  points  of 
division  from  c draw  radiating  lines  cutting  horizontal  beds 
at  m n o p,  etc.,  and  the  center  stone  at  s t u v,  etc., 
which  gives  the  joints.  Draw  ordinates  from  f g h i,  etc., 
and  project  on  to  the  line  A B as  F G H I,  etc.,  and  repeat 
the  same  at  stuv,  etc.,  on  the  line  Y Z,  giving  joint  lines  on 
the  plan;  to  determine  points  in  the  curve  of  the  soffit  for  templates, 
the  dotted  lines  at  the  right  hand  of  the  niche  show  how  they 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


APPENDIX 


451 


are  obtained.  The  dotted  segment  line  from  1 to  1,  2 to  2, 
3 to  3,  etc.,  on  elevation  will  be  the  section  of  curve  at  corre- 
sponding points  on  the  plan  at  1 1,  2 2,  3 3,  etc.,  and  also  gives 
the  points  in  the  line  of  curve  for  the  joints  on  plan,  although 
the  last  named  is  not  necessary  for  the  setting  out  or  the  work- 
ing. 

To  work  the  Springer  1 L. 

Fig.  13. — 1 A is  the  bed  or  joint  mould  transferred  from  the 
plan  (Fig.  12),  the  line  A B being  the  front  vertical  face,  B Y 
the  line  of  soffit,  Y Y 1 the  splay  joint,  and  A A 1 the  vertical 
face  joint. 

No.  1 L is  the  face  mould  transferred  from  the  elevation  (Fig. 

11). 

The  form  of  stone  required  will  be  that  of  a wedge-shape 
prism  (as  in  sketch,  Fig.  14),  containing  the  face  mould  to  the 
extreme  size  as  af  ay  s m. 

Begin  by  working  the  bed  or  joint  a b y,  keeping  the  seg- 
mental line  B Y fair  for  arris,  and  scribe  the  bed  mould  1 A on. 
Work  the  vertical  face  and  scribe  in  the  face  mould  1 L,  and 
the  other  bed  m f s,  scribing  in  the  bed  mould  1 A.  Work  the 
vertical  joint  a a\  and  top  bed  a!  m,  and,  lastly,  the  soffit,  the 
working  of  this  being  guided  by  one  or  two  templates  made  from 
11,2  2,  etc. 

The  remaining  stones  are  worked  similar  to  the  foregoing, 
keeping  in  mind  the  principle  that  the  stone  is  contained  within 
the  wedge-shape  prism,  thus  making  it  easy  of  comprehension. 


FOUNDATIONS. 


The  following  are  cases  that  require  special  treat- 
ment: Soft  soils  of  a great  depth;  soft  soils  with  hard 
strata  beneath;  soils  not  having  a uniform  resistance, 
formed  of  rocks  which  have  hollows  or  fissures  filled  up 
with  some  softer  material. 

Foundations  in  the  first  case  may  be  made  in  one  of 
two  ways,  or  by  a combination  of  both — by  sheet  pil- 
ing; by  forming  the  foundation  on  planks. 

Sheet  Piling . Sheet  piling,  as  shown  in  Figures  i 

and  2,  is  used  to  prevent  the  lateral  escape  of  the  soft 
soil ; it  consists  of  flat  timbers,  about  9 in.  to  1 1 in.  X 3 
in.,  driven  in  and  enclosing  the  site  to  be  built  upon,  the 
area  of  the  latter  being  sufficient  to  withstand  the  pres- 
sure brought  to  bear  upon  it;  as  the  soil  cannot  escape, 
it  must  necessarily  remain  and  support  the  structure.  If 
the  site  is  to  be  drained  it  must  be  done  before  the 
building  is  erected. 

In  order  to  enclose  a site  with  sheet  piling,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  drive  guide  piles  into  the  soil,  at  intervals  of 
from  6 feet  to  10  feet  apart.  These  usually  consist  of 
timbers  9 inches  square  and  upwards,  pointed  and  shod 
with  iron  at  the  lower  extremities,  as  shown  in  Figure 
3.  The  point  consists  of  a pyramidal  block  of  cast  iron, 
about  6 inches  in  length,  and  having  a base  about  4 
inches  to  5 inches  square;  this  has  four  mortices,  about 
2 in.  X % ln-  by  about  24  in • in  depth.  This  is  placed 
on  the  end  of  the  pile,  which  has  been  cut  as  a trun- 
cated pyramid,  the  iron  block  completing  the  latter,  and 
is  fixed  with  four  straps  of  wrought  iron  about  1 foot  6 

452 


FOUNDATIONS 


453 


SO’-O 


Fig.  6. 


454 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


inches  in  length,  with  the  ends  turned  to  fit  in  the 
mortices  of  the  cast-iron  points.  The  straps  are  fixed  to 
the  wood  pile  with  large  clout  nails,  the  point  being 
thus  fixed,  as  shown  in  Figure  3.  The  guide  piles  are 
driven  in  to  within  about  2 feet  of  the  ground;  they 
are  connected  together  by  horizontal  timbers  about  9 in. 
X 6 in.,  bolted  to  them  in  pairs,  with  a space  between 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  sheet  piles.  Two  pairs  of 
waling  pieces  are  thus  fixed,  one  at  the  ground  level, 
and  the  other  near  the  top  of  the  piles  in  the  spaces ; be- 
tween these  the  sheet  piles  are  driven,  the  walings  serv- 
ing to  keep  them  in  an  upright  position.  The  joints  of 
the  sheet  piles  are  prepared  in  three  general  ways : 
square,  grooved  and  tongued,  or  bird’s-mouthed  togeth- 
er, the  first  and  last  being  those  most  commonly  used, 
the  second  and  third  being  shown  in  Figure  6.  The 
sheeting  piles  are  pointed  at  their  lower  ends,  in  the 
way  shown  in  Figure  5,  to  cause  them  to  draw  in  one 
direction ; they  have  a piece  of  sheet  iron  nailed  over 
the  end  to  protect  the  point. 

The  ground  within  the  enclosure  is  frequently  con- 
solidated by  driving  in  piles  as  shown  in  Figures  1 and 
2,  the  tops  of  these  being  covered  by  a layer  of  concrete 
covering  the  whole  site  within  the  enclosed  area. 

Plank  Foundations.  These  are  useful  in  soft  and  very 
wet  soils.  Each  may  consist  of  a platform  of  timber 
formed  by  two  layers  of  planking,  as  shown  in  Figure 
7,  the  lower-most  layer  being  placed  at  right  angles  to 
the  length  of  the  wall;  the  uppermost  parallel  to  the 
length  of  the  wall  and  being  spiked  to  the  first,  on  this 
the  brickwork  or  masonry  footings  are  commenced. 
The  best  and  most  plentiful  wood  for  this  purpose  is 
elm,  which  if  kept  constantly  wet  is  practically  imperish- 


FOUNDATIONS 


455 


Fig.  8. 


Ebrf/7  remof'ec/  /> 

&/?o/r  fl'/e-,  r’sosr/cs 
&S7c/  /.OST^S  fuc/sr?#/  T7?77&Cf'S‘ 


456 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


able,  but  where  exposed  to  alternations  of  wetness  and 
dryness  will  rapidly  decay.  Timbers  for  this  purpose 
should  be  treated  to  one  of  the  preservative  processes, 
notably  creosoting. 

Example:  Let  it  be  required  to  support  a wall  2 

bricks  in  thickness  and  stressed  with  a load  of  5 tons  per 
superficial  foot  by  a plank  foundation,  the  safe  resist- 
ance of  the  soil  being  yA  ton  per  superficial  foot.  De- 


termine width  of  foundation  and  thickness  of  planking, 
required.  Taking  a length  of  1 foot — 


width  of  foundations 


total  load 

safe  resistance  of  earth 


_5  X 1V2 

H 

— 10  feet. 

The  length  of  the  transverse  planks  forming  the  foun- 
dation are  first  laid;  then  longitudinal  planks,  in  this 
case  say  to  a width  of  3 feet  9 inches,  are  laid  on  and 
securely  spiked  to  the  transverse.  Upon  this  the  foot- 


FOUNDATIONS 


457 


ings,  commencing  with  a width  of  3 feet,  are  bedded. 
Treating  the  projecting  planking  as  cantilevers,  the 
lengths  of  which  may  be  taken  as  44  inches,  the  thick- 
ness may  be  determined. 

Soft  Soils  with  Hard  Strata  beneath . Cases  of  this 
description  are  commonly  met  with  where  buildings  are 
erected  on  the  banks  of  rivers;  they  are  usually  dealt 
with  in  one  of  two  ways — by  piling,  until  the  pile  re- 
fuses to  be  driven  Y of  an  inch  at  each  blow.  Figure  9 
illustrates  piles  driven  in  soft  ground,  supporting  cast- 
iron  heads,  brick  relieving  arches  upholding  concrete 
beam,  forming  the  foundation.  By  sinking  piers  down 
to  the  firm  stratum. 

Piling.  The  foundations  are  formed  by  driving 
piles  from  19  inches  square  and  upwards,  similar  to 
the  guide  piles  mentioned,  till  their  points  rest  on  the 
solid  ground.  These  are  driven  in  in  varying  distances 
apart  under  all  the  piers  of  the  building,  which  should 
be  connected  by  inverted  arches,  as  shown  in  Figure  85 
to  distribute  the  pressure  uniformly  along  the  founda- 
tion, and  the  piles  being  bridged  both  transversely  and 
longitudinally  by  horizontal  timbers  of  about  the  same 
sectional  area  as  the  piles,  the  whole  being  arranged  as 
shown  in  Figure  8,  which  also  illustrates  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  piles  at  the  angle  of  a building.  On  the  top 
of  the  timbering  may  be  placed  a platform  of  timber  or 
a layer  of  concrete,  on  which  the  walls  are  built. 

Pile  Driving.  Piles  are  driven  in  the  ground  usually 
by  means  of  a ram,  which  is  a block  of  iron,  sometimes 
called  a monkey,  weighing  from  200  to  700  pounds, 
raised  by  a crab  winch,  actuated  by  manual  or  steam 
power.  Figure  10  is  an  illustration  of  a pile  engine, 
capable  of  being  worked  by  manual  or  by  steam  power. 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


458 

The  monkey  in  these  machines  is  raised  to  a given 
height,  when,  by  an  arrangement  known  as  a slip-hook, 
it  is  released,  and  descends  with  a force  increasing  di- 
rectly as  the  height  to  which  it  had  been  raised.  This 


Fig.  10. 


distance  ranges  from  5 to  10  feet,  usually  5 feet,  as  a 
comparatively  heavy  monkey  with  a shorter  fall  is  found 
practically  to  be  better  than  a light  monkey  with  a great 
fall,  the  latter  having  the  tendency  to  shiver  the  pile 


FOUNDATIONS 


459 


instead  of  forcing  it  downwards.  Piles  are  considered 
to  be  sufficiently  driven  when  the  last  blow  does  not  sink 
the  head  more  than  % inch. 

The  supporting  power  of  a pile  depends — upon  the 
resistance  at  the  point  to  resist  penetration;  the  friction 
of  the  earth  upon  the  sides  of  the  pile;  and  if  projecting 
above  the  ground,  its  strength  as  a pillar. 

Small  steam  hammers  are  sometimes  used  as  pile- 
driving machines. 

Rankine  says  that  it  appears  from  practical  examples 
that  the  limits  of  the  safe  loads  on  piles  are  as  follows : 

In  piles  driven  till  they  reach  the  firm  ground,  1,000 
lbs.  per  square  inch  of  area  of  head. 

In  piles  standing  in  soft  ground,  by  friction,  200  lbs. 
per  square  inch  of  area  of  head. 

Sinking  Piers.  Piers  of  concrete  or  brick  may  be 
taken  at  intervals  through  the  soft  soil  down  to  the  hard 
sub-stratum;  these  are  connected  by  arches  or  girders, 
upon  which  the  superstructure  is  raised.  If  the  soil  is 
sufficiently  firm,  timbered  excavations  are  made,  and  con- 
crete or  brick  piers  may  be  formed ; but  if  the  soil  is 
waterlogged,  or  in  any  way  insecure,  brick  cylinders  may 
be  sunk  or  iron  cylinders  or  caissons,  these  two  cylinders 
being  filled  up  with  concrete  and  forming  solid  piers. 

Concrete  Piers.  The  following  example  will  illustrate 
concrete  piers.  Let  a bed  of  soft  soil  30  feet  in  depth 
overlie  a compact  gravel  substratum,  with  a safe  resist- 
ance of  8 tons  per  superficial  foot.  It  is  required  to  erect 
a wall  with  a load  of  8 tons  per  lineal  foot.  Let  the 
distance  between  the  centers  of  adjacent  piers  be  15  feet, 
then  the  total  load  supported  by  each  pier  equals  15X8 
= 120  tons.  Let  the  weight  of  concrete  pier  be  taken  as 
40  tons,  then  the  total  load  on  bearing  stratum  equals 


460 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 

Fig.  12. 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  17. 


FOUNDATIONS 


461 


120  -f-  40  = 160  tons.  The  section  area  of  concrete  pier 
at  base  equals  160  -f-  8 = 20  superficial  feet.  Let  the 
horizontal  dimensions  of  pier  to  suit  brickwork  be  taken 
as  5 ft.  6 in.  X 4 ft.,  a timbered  excavation  having  these 
internal  dimensions  is  prepared,  and  then  filled  solid  with 
concrete,  the  timbering  being  removed  as  the  concrete  is 
deposited,  or,  if  the  ground  is  uncertain,  the  timbering  is 
frequently  left  in.  Figures  11  and  12  show  the  above 
case. 

Brick  Piers  and  Steel  Girders . Let  a wall  stressed 
with  a load  of  8 tons  per  lineal  foot  be  carried  by  steel 
girders  supported  on  brick  piers  in  cement,  the  center 
lines  of  which  are  15  feet  apart.  Let  the  safe  resistance 
of  brickwork  in  cement  be  taken  as  10  tons  per  superficial 
foot,  cement  concrete,  1 of  Portland  cement  to  6 parts  of 
ballast  as  15  tons  per  superficial  foot,  and  hard  clay  as  4 
tons  per  superficial  foot. 

The  area  of  pier  = total  load  on  pier  -f-  safe  resist- 
ance of  brickwork,  then — 


Area  of  pier  at  top  course  = 


15  X 8 
10 


= 12  sup. 


ft. 


Let  weight  of  pier  be  taken  as  20  tons — 


Area  of  pier  at  bottom  course  = 
total  load  on  footings 
safe  resistance  of  footings. 


120  -f-  20 
10 


14  sup.  ft. 


The  resistance  of  this  cement  concrete  being  greater 
than  the  brickwork,  it  is  unnecessary  to  calculate  the 


462  STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 

footings.  Let  the  weight  of  the  concrete  be  taken  as  5 
tons — 

A r , total  load  on  earth 

Area  of  concrete  = — — : — = 

self  resistance  of  earth 

140  + 5 = 36-25  feet. 

4 

Let  the  dimensions  of  the  horizontal  section  of  the 
concrete  be  taken  as  6 feet  by  6 feet,  and  that  of  the 
brick  pier  as  3 ft.  9 in.  X 3 ft.  9 in. 

The  clear  span  between  piers  will  now  equal  1 1 feet  3 
inches,  and  the  total  distributed  load  will  equal  90  tons; 
then  from  a manufacturer’s  list  a 16  in.  X 18  in.  com- 
pound steel  girder  191  lbs.  per  foot  run  will  carry  safely 
a distributed  load  of  96  tons  over  an  1 1 feet  3 inch  span. 
Figures  13  and  14  illustrate  this  example. 

Sinking  Shafts . Brick  shafts  are  sunk  in  one  of  two 
ways — First,  by  the  method  known  as  underpinning.  In 
this  a circular  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground  as  deep  as  pos- 
sible without  causing  the  earth  to  fall,  a circular  built-up 
wood  curb  is  then  laid  perfectly  level  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hole,  on  which  the  brickwork  is  raised  to  the  top  of 
the  shaft,  care  being  taken  to  pack  the  earth  tightly 
behind  the  brickwork.  When  this  part  is  completed,  a 
hole  is  dug  in  the  center  of  the  shaft  as  deep  as  possible, 
usually  from  6 to  8 feet,  a wood  sole  plate  is  bedded, 
inclined  struts  are  then  inserted,  with  one  end  resting  on 
the  plate,  the  other  supporting  the  curb.  At  the  com- 
pletion of  the  fixing  of  these  the  earth  is  taken  from 
beneath  the  curb  at  all  parts  to  the  level  of  the  sole 
plate.  A new  curb  is  now  inserted,  and  the  brickwork 
built  up  to  the  underside  of  the  old  curb,  and  the  struts 
removed.  This  process  is  repeated  till  the  required  depth 
is  obtained,  as  shown  in  Figure  15. 


FOUNDATIONS 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


464 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Second  method:  A wood  curb  similar  to  the  one  in 
the  last  method,  or  an  iron  curb  with  a sharp  edge,  is 
employed  here.  The  curb  is  laid  on  the  ground,  and 
the  brick  or  stonework  raised  upon  it.  The  earth  inside 
the  curb  is  removed,  and  on  being  taken  from  beneath, 
the  curb  with  the  brickwork  sinks,  fresh  courses  of  the 
latter  being  added  as  the  sinking  proceeds.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  friction  on  the  sides  of  the  brick 
lining  is  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  same  from  sinking; 
where  this  occurs,  a second  curb  is  placed  inside  the  first, 
and  a smaller  shaft  proceeded  with  in  a manner  similar 
to  the  first. 

Iron  Cylinder  or  Caisson.  This  is  sunk  similarly  to 
the  brick  shaft  just  described,  fresh  plates  being  added 
as  the  earth  is  removed.  These  being  in  one  mass,  as 
shown  in  Figures  16  and  17,  there  is  less  likelihood  of 
their  going  out  of  the  vertical ; there  is  not  so  much 
friction  on  their  sides,  they  therefore  sink  easier  than 
the  above,  and  are  better  where  there  is  much  water  in 
the  soil. 

If  the  above-mentioned  shafts  have  been  sunk  to  the 
firm  strata,  they  are  usually  filled  with  concrete,  thus 
forming  a number  of  solid  pillars.  These  are  connected 
by  arches  or  girders,  and  upon  these  the  superstructure 
is  raised. 

Where  soft  places  such  as  underground  brooks  trav- 
erse the  tracks  of  walls  it  is  usual  to  lay  the  concrete 
and  bed  the  footings  in  the  usual  manner,  and  subse- 
quently to  build  a rough  relieving  arch  through  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  over  the  soft  parts  as  shown  in 
Figures  18  and  19. 

Soils  not  having  a Uniform  Resistance . Soils  of  this 
description,  where  the  ground  consists  of  rock  or  firm 


FOUNDATIONS 


465 


ground  in  some  parts,  and  in  others  of  a soft  soil,  require 
careful  treatment  to  prevent  unequal  settlement.  The 
best  method  under  these  conditions  is  to  cover  the  whole 
site  with  a bed  of  concrete,  this  being  further  strength- 
ened by  embedding  steel  rails  into  the  concrete,  span- 
ning the  soft  parts ; in  this  way  a solid,  hard  platform  is 
obtained  over  the  whole  site. 

Soft  soils  subjected  to  Unequal  Pressures . Where  the 
pressures  of  a building  are  concentrated  at  piers  placed 
at  intervals  in  the  lengths  of  the  walls  there  is  a danger 
of  unequal  settlements  and  fractures  in  the  unloaded  por- 
tions of  the  walls ; to  counteract  this  tendency  inverted 
arches,  as  shown  in  Figures  20  and  21,  are  constructed 
between  the  piers,  distributing  the  pressures  uniformly 
over  the  whole  lengths  of  the  foundations. 

Benching . Where  buildings  are  erected  on  the  side  of 
a hill,  and  it  is  not  practicable  nor  economical  to  ex- 
cavate the  whole  site  of  the  building  to  one  level,  the 
ground  should  be  benched — that  is,  cut  into  a number  of 
horizontal  steps;  on  these  the  foundations  are  laid  and 
the  walls  raised.  The  wall,  if  of  brick,  should  be  carried 
up  in  cement  to  the  highest  level  of  the  foundation,  and 
in  large  blocks  of  stone,  if  in  masonry,  in  order  to  reduce 
the  inequality  of  settlement  due  to  the  varying  number 
of  bed  joints. 

Subsoil  Drainage . In  low-lying  districts,  and  in  damp 
soils  generally,  the  site  for  any  building  should  be 
drained  thoroughly  before  the  structure  is  commenced, 
especially  if  there  is  the  remotest  possibility  of  any 
future  cuttings  being  made,  such  as  would  be  required 
for  sewers  or  railways,  which,  by  acting  as  a drainage 
system,  would  cause  the  failure  of  the  foundations. 
Dampness  in  the  soil  has  a deleterious  effect  upon  the 


466 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


Fig.  27. 


FOUNDATIONS 


467 


health  of  the  inmates,  and  also  causes  defects  in  the 
building:  first,  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
earth,  consequent  upon  the  absorption  and  evaporation  of 
moisture,  which  tends  to  rend  the  walls ; secondly  the 
damp  is  drawn  up  the  walls.  This  may  be  stopped  by 
an  efficient  damp-proof  course ; but  where  a wood  floor 
is  built  on  the  ground  floor,  the  timbers  will  be  liable  to 
dry  rot.  This  may  to  a certain  extent  be  avoided  by 
ventilating  the  timbers;  but  even  under  these  conditions 
the  timbers  invariably  rot  by  being  subjected  to  alterna- 
tions of  dampness  and  dryness.  To  reduce  the  pos- 
sibility of  this  defect,  a layer  of  concrete  at  least  6 inches 
thick  should  be  spread  over  the  whole  area  covered  by 
the  building,  and  a damp-proof  course  over  the  whole 
site,  as  shown  in  Figures  26  and  27. 

Where  isolated  buildings  have  to  be  erected,  the 
method  of  draining  the  land  would  be  as  follows:  A 
trench  or  ditch  is  dug  about  the  whole  site  to  intercept 
any  water  that  may  flow  over  the  land,  and  prevent  it 
passing  over  the  site.  The  site  , is  divided  into  a number 
of  parallel  bays  by  narrower  trenches  than  the  above,  all 
having  a fall  towards  the  lowest  part  of  the  site.  Be- 
tween these  a number  of  still  smaller  trenches  are  cut, 
being  arranged  in  a herring-bone  pattern.  These  diverge 
from  the  center  line  of  the  bay  in  the  direction  of  the 
fall,  and  discharge  into  the  above-mentioned  trenches ; 
the  latter  empty  themselves  into  the  enclosing  ditch,  from 
which  the  water  is  conveyed  by  a continuation  of  the 
latter,  or  a pipe,  to  the  nearest  stream,  if  the  land  is 
nearly  level ; or  if  the  ground  is  on  the  slope,  the  water 
is  discharged  over  the  same  at  a lower  level. 

Trenches . The  depths  of  trenches  usually  vary  from 
2>4  to  6 feet ; they  are  cut  as  narrow  as  possible.  The 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


468 

bottoms  of  the  trenches  are  cut  to  regular  falls  of  not 
less  than  1 in  100.  The  distance  between  the  smallest 
trenches  varies  with  the  soil,  being  about  20  feet  in  clay 
to  40  feet  in  lighter  soils. 

A duct  is  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  trenches  for  the 
conveyance  of  water.  This  may  be  done  in  one  of  three 
ways,  as  follows:  by  placing  a layer  of  large  stones  at 
the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  through  the  interstices  of 
which  the  water  can  flow ; a channel  is  formed  with  tiles, 
either  flat  or  curved,  or  of  thin  slabs  of  stone  (as  shown 


in  Figure  28) — where  a thinly  stratified  stone  is  abund- 
ant, a space  is  left  between  the  joints  of  the  pieces  to 
allow  the  water  to  drain  into  the  channel;  agricultural 
drain  pipes,  as  shown  in  Figure  29,  are  used,  being  made 
of  earthenware,  about  15  inches  in  length  and  about  2 
inches  diameter  in  the  smallest  drains,  and  from  3 to  4 
inches  in  the  main  drains.  The  pipes  are  laid  dry  with  a 
butt  joint  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench ; the  ends  are  placed 
close  together,  the  uneven  surfaces  leaving  a sufficient 
space  for  the  water  to  find  its  way  through.  Collars  are 
sometimes  placed  over  the  joints  to  prevent  dirt  finding 
its  way  in,  and  to  prevent  the  ends  of  the  pipes  getting 


FOUNDATIONS 


469 


removed  from  each  other  while  the  trench  is  being  filled. 
The  collars  consist  of  a piece  of  pipe  of  a larger  diameter 
than  the  drain,  into  which  the  ends  of  the  latter  fit 
loosely. 

Filling  In.  The  space  above  stones,  tiles,  or  pipes 
should  be  filled  in  with  a fine  porous  earth  to  a depth  of 
at  least  15  inches,  and  above  this  the  ordinary  earth  may 
be  placed,  the  latter  being  shot  in  lightly  at  first,  but 
finally  well  rammed. 

Failure  and  Prevention.  Such  a drainage  system  is 
liable  to  failure  from  the  following  causes:  by  the  ac- 
cumulation of  silt  and  vermin  in  the  pipes ; roots  of  trees, 
which  push  the  pipes  out  of  their  place  and  extend  up  the 
pipe,  and  finally  stop  them  up ; where  the  pipes  are  under 
a building  they  are  liable  to  fail  by  the  settlement  of  the 
latter. 

The  first  danger  may  be  avoided  by  building  a catch- 
pit  at  intervals,  which  consists  of  a brick  chamber,  into 
which  the  pipe  discharges ; all  the  matter  in  suspension 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  chamber,  the  fluid  flows  off 
through  the  continuation  of  the  pipe  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  catchpit.  To  prevent  vermin,  such  as  mice,  etc., 
from  getting  up  the  pipes,  all  the  outlets  should  be  cov- 
ered by  a wire  guard  or  broken  glass. 

If  laid  near  trees,  collars  should  be  employed,  or 
socketed  pipes  set  in  cement. 

If  occurring  under  the  walls  of  a building,  a space 
should  be  left  and  arched  above  them,  in  order  that  the 
pressure  may  not  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  pipes  on  the 
settlement  of  the  building  and  consequent  compression  of 
the  earth. 

Widths  and  Depths  of  Concrete  Foundations . For 
heavy  buildings  the  widths  of  the  concrete  in  the  founda- 


470 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


tion  should  be  determined  by  the  bearing  strength  of  the 
ground  on  which  they  rest.  The  following  table  is  use- 
ful in  calculating  the  widths: 


Table  of  Safe  Loads  in  Tons,  per  superficial  foot. 

Tons. 

Brickwork  in  mortar  (sound  stocks),  grey  chalk 

lime  and  sand,  1 to  2,  six  months  old 

2i 

Lias  lime  and  sand,  1 to  2,  six  months  old 

Brickwork  in  cement  (hard  stocks),  Portland 

5 

cement  and  sand,  1 to  1,  three  months  old 

10 

Portland  cement  and  sand,  1 to  1,  three  months  old 

8 

Concrete — Portland  cement  and  river  ballast,  1 to 

6,  twelve  months  old 

15  to  20 

Lias  lime  and  river  ballast,  1 to  6,  twelve  months 

old 

to 

Rubble  masonry  in  lias  lime 

4 

There  are  two  methods  of  approximately  determining 
the  bearing  resistance  of  the  soil.  By  taking  a square 
piece  of  wood  of  a given  area,  say,  i foot,  and  loading  it 
until  the  ground  is  impressed.  By  taking  a bar  of  iron 
of  given  sectional  area  and  dropping  the  same  from  a 
given  height  and  noting  the  depth  to  which  the  bar 
sinks  into  the  ground  before  it  comes  to  rest,  and  then 
deducing  from  the  laws  of  falling  bodies  the  resistance 
that  has  been  offered. 

The  maximum  load  is  usually  taken  as  1^4  to  2 tons 
per  superficial  foot.  Thus,  if  a brick  wall  built  in  lias 
lime  mortar  will  safely  carry  5 tons  per  superficial  foot 
of  section,  and  assuming  the  earth  to  be  capable  of  sup- 
porting safely  a uniform  load  of  tons  per  superficial 
foot,  then  the  width  of  concrete  should  be  5 1^2,  or 

nearly  3.33  times  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  depth 


FOUNDATIONS 


47i 


or  thickness  of  the  concrete  is  usually  determined  by  ex- 
perience, but  as  the  most  dangerous  fracture  that  is  likely 
to  occur  in  concrete  foundations  is  at  the  angle  of  about 
450  to  the  base,  causing  the  foundations  to  rupture  in  a 
number  of  triangular  prisms  or  pyramids  shearing  or 
sliding  upon  each  other,  it  would  be  better  determined 
by  drawing  lines  as  in  Figures  22  and  23,  inclined  45 0 
to  the  plane  of  the  bottom  of  the  wall  above  the  footings 
from  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  the  depth  required  is 
shown  by  the  intersection  of  these  lines  with  the  vertical 
lines,  indicating  the  width  of  the  concrete,  supposing 
that  the  base  of  the  foundations  is  on  ground  that  is  not 
likely  to  escape  laterally  under  pressure. 

The  following  illustrates  the  application  of  this  theory 
to  piers : 

Example:  Calculate  the  necessary  dimensions  of 

brick  footings,  and  the  width  and  depth  of  concrete  for 
a square  brick  pier  of  3 feet  side,  stressed  to  5 tons  per 
square  foot  of  section,  the  safe  loads  of  lias  lime  con- 
crete, and  earth  being  taken  as  3 and  1 tons  per  super- 
ficial foot  respectively. 

The  area  of  the  base  of  the  footings  in  feet  will  be  the 
total  load  divided  by  the  safe  load  per  superficial  foot  of 
concrete.  Let  the  weight  of  the  brick  footings  be  taken 
as  approximately  1 ton,  then — 


Total  load 

Safe  load  upon  concrete 


45  + i 
3 


= 15%  feet  super. 


The  side  of  base  footings  will  therefore  equal  in  nearest 
brick  dimensions  4 feet  inches;  but  it  is  usual  to 
make  the  side  of  lowest  course  of  footings  twice  the 
width  of  the  pier,  that  is,  in  this  case,  6 feet. 

The  area  of  the  base  of  the  concrete  in  feet  will  be  the 


472 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


total  load  divided  by  the  safe  load  sustained  per  super- 
ficial foot  by  the  earth.  Let  the  weight  of  the  concrete 
be  taken  as  approximately  5 tons,  then — 


Total  load 
Safe  load  upon  earth 


45+1  + 5 

1 


= 51  feet  super. 


and  the  side  of  base  of  concrete  will  therefore  equal  7.14 
feet,  say  7 feet  3 inches,  as  shown  in  Figures  22  and  23. 

The  footings  being  splayed  at  the  usual  angle,  and  the 
depth  of  concrete  being  determined  by  drawing  lines  at 
450  from  base  of  wall  and  the  point  of  intersection  with 
the  calculated  width  of  concrete,  will  give  the  depth,  as 
previously  explained.  Figure  22  shows  how  the  brick 
footings  are  usually  arranged  in  practice,  which,  in  this 
case,  may  be  supposed  to  be  substituted  for  the  equivalent 
depth  of  concrete. 

Depth  of  Concrete  by  Calculation . The  depth  of  con- 
crete may  be  obtained  by  calculating  as  for  a cantilever 
under  a distributed  load. 

Figure  24  shows  the  wall  inverted  to  realize  more 
clearly  the  pressure.  The  part  between  b and  c may  be 
considered  as  under  compressional  stress  only,  whilst  the 
distances  a b,  c e,  represent  the  lengths  of  the  cantilevers. 

Tall  Piers . The  height  of  a pier  in  brickwork  above 
any  horizontal  section  should  not  exceed  twelve  times  the 
least  dimension  of  that  section.  The  area  of  the  base  of 
such  piers  should  be  proportioned  to  the  pressure  they 
have  to  resist.  For  economy  in  labor  the  sides  of  the 
piers  are  usually  carried  up  vertically  and  have  the  same 
sectional  area  at  top  as  at  the  bottom,  that  is,  they  have 
an  excess  of  strength  and  therefore  of  material.  For 
perfect  and  economical  construction  the  horizontal  sec- 
tions of  a pier  at  any  part  should  be  proportioned  to  the 


FOUNDATIONS 


473 


Fig.  31.  Fig.  32. 


Fig.  30. 


474 


STONEMASONS'  GUIDE 


pressure  upon  them.  It  would  only  be  in  the  cases  of 
very  tall  piers  supporting  very  heavy  loads  that  it  would 
be  economical  to  design  the  piers  to  the  theoretical  sec- 
tions, but  if  the  piers  are  sufficiently  large  to  build  hol- 
low then  the  theoretical  section  may  be  kept  and  built  to 
with  economy. 

Example  I. : Let  it  be  required  to  support  a load  of 
50  tons  at  a height  of  30  feet  on  a brick  pier  approxi- 
mately square,  the  safe  load  on  the  brickwork  being  taken 
as  6 tons  per  superficial  foot,  and  the  weight  of  brick- 
work 11 2 lbs.  per  cubic  foot. 


Ti  £ 4.U  4.  t0tal  l0ad 

1 he  area  of  the  top  course  = — ? — z — r 

safe  load 


50 

= — = 81/3  tons  per  sup.  foot. 

6 


Figures  30,  31,  and  32  show  the  construction  of  the 
pier  with  the  necessary  stiffening  walls  and  arches. 

Steel  and  Concrete  F oundations.  A common  method 
of  constructing  foundations  of  walls  and  piers  of  build- 
ings practised  in  America  where  the  structure  rests  upon 
a yielding  stratum,  is  to  embed  steel  joists  in  concrete  in 
order  to  extend  the  bearing  surface.  The  methods  of 
employing  timber  in  foundations  are  defective  unless  it 
is  known  that  the  timber  can  be  kept  permanently  wet 
or  dry,  as  they  quickly  rot.  Iron  or  steel  rails  embedded 
in  concrete  are  not  open  to  this  objection,  but  where 
great  weights  are  concentrated  on  points  or  lines,  as 
under  piers  or  walls,  the  rails  are  subject  to  deflection 
unless  the  concrete  bed  is  very  thick.  I beams  as  now 
used  are  in  every  way  superior  to  the  above,  as  by  em- 
ploying a depth  enough  to  reduce  the  deflection  to  a 


FOUNDATIONS 


475 


Fig.  34. 


«'**  ^ -ri  V * 

? i titri  I 


/Stirs  jier 

/meat  foot  , 

-w 

* /2xS  ff.SJo/sts 


T 

! 

T 

i 

1 

i 

1 

i 

/2- 

T 

0 

T 

i 

T 

i 

T 

i 

1 

1 

1 

-L 

i 

i 

H 


"MT 


r ■ 


-J-HJ-.-j.: 


X 


hzrz 


2-0'  1 


Fig.  35. 


I 


_ P/ztn  . 
• /2-0- 


*80  to  ns 


-fO-CP 


C / bases  /ere/fecf  and gfnoutec/. 


11  1.  1 1111  1 

^2x5  /?  S Jo/sts  32 fas  fier  foot  run 


Fig.  37. 


476 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


minimum,  a comparatively  thin  bed  of  concrete  only 
need  be  used,  and  a sufficient  saving  be  effected  in  exca- 
vation and  concrete  to  compensate  for  the  employment 
of  the  steel  beams. 

This  method  of  constructing  foundations  is  especially 
suitable  where  the  structure  is  erected  upon  a compara- 
tively thin  hard  stratum  overlying  a soft  and  yielding 
stratum,  and  where  consequently  it  would  be  unwise  to 
damage  the  upper  crust. 

To  prepare  foundations  in  this  manner  it  is  usual  to 
lay  a bed  of  concrete  of  from  4 to  12  inches  in  thickness, 
and  on  this  to  place  the  beams  at  right  angles  to  the 
wall  at  centres  varying  from  9 inches  to  24  inches,  as 
shown  in  Figure  34. 

Example:  A wall  1 foot  10 inches  in  thickness 

supports  a load  of  15  tons  per  lineal  foot.  The  width  of 
footings  at  base  to  comply  with  bye-laws  is  3 feet  9 
inches.  The  safe  bearing  strength  of  earth  is  i]/2  tons 
per  superficial  foot;  therefore 

the  width  of  foundation  = — 7 tQtal  load  

safe  resistance  of  earth 

15 

= — = 10  feet. 

ij* 

Grillage  Foundations . In  the  case  of  piers,  steel  joists 
are  placed  in  two  systems  crossing  each  other.  This 
arrangement  is  termed  a grilled  foundation.  The  space 
between  the  joists  is  then  filled  in  with  concrete,  care 
being  taken  to  work  the  same  well  in  between  the 
flanges. 

Figures  35  to  37  show  the  method  of  constructing  a 


FOUNDATIONS 


477 


Fig.  38. 


r 


w 


H 


T~T 


1 1.  i ;i,  1:1 


r 


i . i ; t 


Sections?  csf 

foof/ng&<&nct  VV&Ns 


E/ev&fion. 

Section  N N 

/ \ 

' i 

Fig-.  41. 


Fig.  39. 


XZZL 


1 , 1'.,  1 , 1 


rn  i i 


\ 


Section  of  /*2  Qr/ck 

W&J/ 


P/z*n 


Fig.  4 ). 


Fig.  42 


H 1 I I 1 I h Fig.  43. 

r — — V~n 


Sect/ on  of  Si Sr/ c A W&// 


Section  of  2 Brick  VtnH 


I 1 •-[-i  [~ 


I Z_I 


Fig.  44. 


LL 


Concrete  foc/nd&i/ on 


Sect/o 


12  o 

tn s.tEEkEZl 


n of  3 Br/ck  W<&// 


-tee? 


478 


STONEMASONS’  GUIDE 


grilled  foundation,  the  weight  of  the  building  being  sup- 
posed to  be  transmitted  to  the  ground  through  piers. 

Footings.  These  are  the  wide  courses  placed  at  the 
base  of  a wall  to  distribute  the  pressure  over  a greater 
area  of  ground.  The  course  coming  immediately  upon 
the  concrete  is  required  to  be  twice  the  required  width 
of  the  wall;  thus,  in  a two-brick  wall  this  course  would 
be  four  bricks  wide.  Offsets  of  2*4  inches  are  then 
made  on  each  side  of  each  successive  course  till  the 
desired  thickness  is  obtained.  Walls  of  two  or  more 
bricks  in  thickness  frequently  have  their  bottom  courses 
of  footings  doubled,  as  shown  in  Figures  43  and  44. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  bricks  in  footings  should 
be  laid  as  far  as  possible  as  headers,  but  if  stretchers  are 
required  in  any  course  they  should  be  laid  near  the  cen- 
ter of  the  wall. 

Figures  38  to  44  give  sections  of  footings  and  walls 
in  English  bond  from  one  to  three  bricks  in  thickness. 
Trenches  in  practice  are  excavated  for  beds  of  concrete 
from  9 inches  and  upwards  in  depth,  and  12  inches  wider 
than  base  of  footings  (6  inches  on  each  side). 

Seddon  recommends  that  brick  footings  be  dispensed 
with,  and  a deep  bed  of  good  cement  concrete  substituted 
for  the  footings  and  concrete  foundation;  where  ballast 
is  found  on  the  site  this  is  often  a more  economical 
practice. 


FOUNDATIONS 


479 


Name  ot  Earth. 

Weight 

Decimals  of  a 
Ton. 

Cubic  Foot. 

Tons. 

Cubic  Yard. 

Basalt,  solid  ...  

Bath  stone,  solid  

Chalk,  damp  to  wet,  loose  to  close  ... 

Clay  ...  ...  

Flint,  solid  

Granite 

Gravel  and  shingle  

Limestone  (lias  to  compact  mountain) 

Marl  

Mud,  at  surface 

Mud,  at  about  15  feet  in  depth 
Peat,  hard,  and  top  mould  ... 

Portland  stone,  solid 

Quartz,  solid  

Sand,  dry  river 

Sand,  damp  and  shaken 
Sandstone,  solid 
Shale  

Slate,  solid  ...  ...  

Trap,  solid  ...  

» 

O 083 
0052 

O 056  to  0 074 
0 054  toco  o.59 
0074 
0078 

0 046  to  0 055 
0*067  to  0 078 
0 044  to  0 052 
O' 044 
0048 
0 036 
0*065 
0076 
0 041 
00  55 

0 063  to  0 072 
0074 
0 080 
0 078 

2*25 
I40 
1*50  tO  2 00 
i 45  to  i 60 
2 00 
2*10 
i 25  to  i 50 
I*8l  to  2 10 
1*20  tO  I 40 
1*20 
I 30 

0 98 

1 75 

2 05 

ITO 

150 
170  tO  1*95 
2*00 

215 

2*10 

i 


INDEX. 


A 

Arches  433 

Arches  and  joints  244 

Ashlar  196 

Axed  work  190 

B 

Bed  surface  183 

Block  in  course  195 

Blocking  course  185 

Boasted  or  droved  work 190 

Bolts  199 

Bonders  182 

Bond,  lap  and  course  182 

Building  stones 386 

C 

Cement  joggles  200 

Chisel  drafted  margin  189 

Circular  circular  sunk  work  193 

Circular  circular  work  . . 193 

Circular  sunk  work  193 

Circular  work  193,  298 

Combed  or  dragged  work  191 

481 


482 


INDEX 


Coping  185 

Corbel  184 

Corbel-table 186 

Corbie  step  gables  186 

Cornices  185 

Cramps  198 

D 

Draper  work  187 

Domes  and  pendentives  315 

Dowels  200 

Dressings  183 

E 

Estimating  masonry  378 

F 

Finial  187 

Footings 183 

Foundations  452 

Furrowed  work  19 1 

G 

Gable  details  186 

Gablets  186 

Galleting  183 

Gargoyle  187 

Glossary  of  terms  416 

Grout  182 


INDEX 


483 


H 

Half- sawing  188 

Hammer  dressing  189 

Headers  182 

j 

Joggles  199 

Joints  196 

Joints  to  resist  compression 198 

Joints  to  resist  sliding  199 

Joints  to  resist  tension  198 

K 

Keeler  or  skewput  184 

L 

Lacing  course  184 

Lead  plugs  199 

Lintels  187 

Long  and  short  work  193 

M 

Miters,  external  193 

Miters,  internal  193 

Moulded  work  192 

Moulded  work,  circular  193 

Mouldings,  Gothic  364 


484 


INDEX 


Mouldings,  Grecian  374 

Mouldings,  Roman  376 

P 

Parapet 187 

Pebbles  201 

Plain  work  189 

Plinth  185 

Pointed  work  191 

Polishing  190 

Q 

Quoins  183 

R 

Rag  bolts  199 

Ramp  and  twist  298 

Random  rubble  194 

Random  rubble  built  in  courses 195 

Random  rubble  dry  set 194 

Random  rubble  set  in  mortar  uncoursed 194 

Rebated  joints  185 

Rubbed  work  189 

Rubble  masonry  220 

Rubble,  regular  coursed 195 

Rubble,  uncoursed,  squared  or  snecked 195 


INDEX 


485 


S 

Saddled  or  water  joint * . 185 

Saddle  or  apex  stone 184 

Scabbling  or  scappling  -* 189 

Self  faced  189 

vSills  184 

Skew  corbel  184 

Spalls  or  shivers  182 

Specification  clauses  276 

Squared  rubble  built  in  courses 195 

Staircases  287 

Stairs  and  steps,  stone 266 

Stoncheons  184 

Stonemason,  meaning  of  term 181 

Stones,  classification  of  395 

Stone  walling 194 

String  courses  185 

Sunk  work  193 

T 

Table  of  diameters,  circumferences  and  areas  of 

circles  409 

Tabling  joints  200 

Tailing  irons  187 

Technical  terms  182 

Templates  186 

Throatings 186 

Through  stones  182 

Tooled  work  190 


486 


INDEX 


Tools  and  appliances 201 

Tracery  windows  355 

Tympanum  187 

V 

Vaulting,  cylindrical  306 

Vaulting,  groined  330 

Vermiculated  work  191 

W 

Weathering  182 

Window  and  door  jambs  183 

Wrought  stone  names  . . . . 212 


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